5. Sub-castes and Occupations

Besides the four main varnas, there were other professions and crafts oven in the times of the Samhitas. MM. Dr. Kane observes that owing to the cultural development, division of labour arose and numerous arts and crafts came to be developed and they were in process of contributing to the complexity of the system by creating numerous sub-castes based upon such occupations and in the times of the samhitas and Brahmanas there were groups founded on occupations that had become castes or were in the process of developing into castes 39 Kane P.V., Vol.II, Part I, PP.44,48. 39

238 The Brahma Purana gives a long list of such groups based on the occupations. It does not throw light on the derivaAs tion of these groups but it seems that at the time of the Brahma Purana these groups had developed into fullfledged sub-castes. numerous professions developed and as it became difficult to assign any particular derivation for groups of people, Manu -1 (X.40), Vasistha (18.7) and the Anusasana Parva (148.29) laid down that men's sub-caste was to be known from their actions and occupations. This shows that according to most writers castes in the times of the smrtis were predominantly occupational.40 Besides, the castes having an occupational basis, the Brahma Purana enumerates many other sub-castes of mixed origin and other low castes. For the sake of convenience, the list in the Brahma Purana ■ is arranged in an alphabetical order.: Ajapalah A goat-herd. This suggests that people maintained themselves on cattle (44.32). Antyaja This word is applied to all low castes like the candala in Manu (IV.161), Atri (199) enumerates seven antyajas, viz. Rajaka (washerman), Carmakara (worker in hides) Nata (dancer), Buruda (worker in bamboos), Kaivarta (fisherman), meda and bhilla.41 P. 40 Ibid., F. 59. 41 For details, Ibid., PP.70-71.

239 The Brahma Purana states that lord Brahma created the four principal castes, Antyajatas and Mlecchas. The word used here is Antyajata and not Antyaja (45.35). Antyavasayin or Antavasavin Manu separates 'Antyas' and 'Antyavasayins' and says that the Antyavasayin is the offspring of a candala male from a Nisada female, that he is condemned even by the untouchables and stays in a cemetery (x.39). Vas.Dhz.S. 18.3 holds that the antyavasayin is the offspring of a sudra from a vaisya woman. 42 The Brahma Purana states that in Kaliyuga a brahmin would become an antyavasayin (230.12). Again it is said that on touching an antyavasayin, one should take a bath and purify himself by seeing the Sun (221.135,142). Apupakaraka The reference here is to a cook who seems to be an expert in preparing appa, i.e. a kind of fine bread. This suggests that people used to serve as cooks even in those days. 43 (44.28 ff.). Asikara Some followed the occupation of swordmaking (44.37). 42 Ibid., P.71. 43 This sub-caste is mentioned in an additional list provided by the ms. 'kha' mentioned in the Brahma Purana in the f.n. following the $1. 44.28....Now onwards all the sub-castes mentioned in this list will be indicated by ms. 'kha'.

240 Asmakuttaka WIN or bruising with a stone. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). This occupation consists in breaking It occurs in the list of the ms. It is mentioned in the yajnavalkyasmrti also (III.49). Astravikrayaka noth Some followed the occupation of selling weapons (44.29). Aurabhrika One who maintains himself on the goats suffers in the Vahnijvala hell (22.25). This was not considered to be a respectable occupation. Bhisak - According to Usanas (26) he is the offspring of a clandestine union between a brahmin and a ksatriya girl and he maintains himself by studying the ayurveda in its eight parts, on astronomy, astrology and mathematics (verse 27). According to the Brahma Purana (quoted by Apararka P.1171) 44 he lives by surgery and by attending upon patients. These words are not met with in the present edition, but the present Brahma Purana states that Dhanvantari, the Promulgator of the science of medicine, obtained the knowledge of Ayurveda from the sage Bharadvaja, divided it into eight parts and taught it to his pupils (11.38). 44 Kane F.V., Op.Cit., P. 89-90.

241 Candala - According to Gautama (IV.15-16), Vas.Dh.S. (18.1), Baud.Dh.s.(1.9.7), Manu(X.12), Vajnavalkya (1.93) and Anusasana (48.11) he is a pratiloma caste sprung of a suara from a brahmana woman. He is the lowest among men (Manu K.12), beyond the pale of religious observances prescribed for the four varnas and often spoken of in the same breadth with dogs and crows (e.g. Ap.Dh.s. 4.9.5, Gautama 15.25, Yaj.I,103). The Brahma Purana devotes one whole adhyaya in describing a Candala who was a staunch devotee of Visnu (A.227). There it is said that he maintained himself by 'Sadvrtti' and was engrossed in serving others (227.3). Elsewhere it is stated that by practising righteousness, one gets birth as a candala (227.99). The meat brought by a candala is considered to be pure (221.127). One who offers a sraddha by money obtained through injustice does not satisfy the ancestors suffering in the births of Candala, Pulkasa etc. (220.98). Carmarkara Atri enumerates Carmakara as one of the seven antyajas. 45 According to Usanas (4), he is the offspring of a sudra from a ksatriya girl, whereas the verse 21 says that those sprung from a Vaidehaka and a brahmin girl subsist by working on hides. This name persists to this day 46 as Cambhara or Camara. 45 Atri (199), Angiras (Jivananda ed.I; P.554), Yama (An.ed.) 33, Visnu Dh.s. 51.8, Apastamba 9.32, Parasara (VI.44). 46 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.80.

242 The Br. F. mentions it in the list of the ms.'kha' (44.28 ff.).' Chaganosaka -22 The Brahma Purana states that one who keeps goats suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.20). Chedaka The meaning seems to be a surgeon one who cuts or operates (44.39). Citrakara The painter is mentioned (44.36). Dahaka The meaning seems to be one who cures the diseases by the application of a burning iron-rod etc. (44.39). Even at present this practice of curing the diseases is prevalent in the villages. 'Dandakara - One who prepares staffs or sticks (44.37). Devalaka He is an attendant upon an idol and subsists on the offsprings made to it. The Brahma Purana mentions him among the Panktidusaka brahmins (220.134). Dhanyavikrayin Some people maintained themselves by selling corn (44.33). Duta Some people worked as messangers, envoys or ambassadors (44.37).

243 Gajavaidya - There were the veterinary doctors specialised in curing the diseases of elephants (44.39). Garuda The dictionary meaning of 'Garudika' is a charmer or a dealer in antidotes, either of which seems to have been meant here (44.35). The dictionary meaning of 'Garuda' is shaped like Garuda' or 'coming from or relating to Garuda.47 The Hindi translation of the Brahma Purana gives the meaning as 'an expert in Garuda lore. Gayaka livelihood (44.34). 148 < Some practised the art of singing as a Gopala The cowherds are mentioned along with others (44.32). They played an important part in the childhood of lord krsna (A.180-212). Novaidya These veterinary doctors specialised in curing the diseases related to cows (44.39). Gramahanta It is stated that one who kills the people of the whole village goes to Vaitarani (22.23). 47 Monier Williams: A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, P.354. 48 Kalyana 'Samksipta Markandeya Brahmapurananka', Varsa 21, January 1947, P.349.

244 Gramayajaka It is said that one who performs sacrifices for the whole village suffers in the Rudhirandha hell (22.22). Ghdavikrayika Some people maintained themselves by selling guda, i.e. the thick sugar formed into lumps by thickening of the juice of the sugarcane through boiling process (44.33). Hamsaka The meaning is not clear. As it is mentioned along with other occupations related to cattlerearing, it may mean those who used to keep geese or swans (44.32). Isukara Some people maintained themselves by preparing arrows. It is mentioned in the list of the ms.'kha' (44.28 ff.). Javasahara The meaning is not clear. Either it is a complete word or it may be a combination of Javasa and Hara or Jaya and Sahara. According to Monier Williams 'Javasa' is a word though given in native lexicons, has not yet been met with in any published text.49 The same is the case with the word 'Sahara', though its meaning is given as a 49 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.416. 3.

245 species of mango-tree, it being probably a prakrta form for Saha-kara.50 If the word 'Javasahara' is an alternative for 'Yavasahara', then an inference might be made that some people depended for their maintenance on good pasture (44.31). Kaivarta - Manu (X.34) tells us that the inhabitants of Aryavarta employ the name Kaivarta to denote the offspring of a nisada from an ayogava woman, who is also called margava 51 and dasa and who subsists by plying boats. The other view is that he is born of a prostitute by a ksatroya.52 The Brahma Purana states that a Kaivarta falls in the Rudhirandha hell (22.21). Kamsyakara Narada (Rnadana 274) and Visnu Dh.s. He (X.4) mention him in connection with the balance ordeal. is the modern 'Kamsara' (in Gujarati) and 'Kamsara' (in Marathi) dealing with vessels. with others (44.36). Karmakara The Brahma Purana mentions him along Visnu Dh.s.(51.14) mentions this caste. It is most probably the same as Karmara. But Sankha (Prose) [Karmakara and Karmara.53 The Br.P.mentions quoted by Apararka, P.115 mentions in the same passage _ 'Karmakara' in the regular list (44.37) but mentions 'Karmara' 50 Ibid., P.1196. 51 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.79. 52 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.311. 53 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.75.

246 in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). It cannot be decided whether the Brahma Purana considers both of them to be identical or separate classes. Karmara It is mentioned in vedic literature. • Manu also mentions it (IV.215). In Bengal, the Lohar is a scheduled caste. 54 The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Karnin The Brahma Purana states that one who prepares karni, a type of an arrow, suffers in Visasana hell (22.16). Kasthavikrayaka Some people maintained themselves by selling wood (44.29). 21 Kathaka A professional story-teller. He may belong to the category of bard or panegyrist (44.34). Kausakara The meaning seems to be one who prepares silken garments from silk-worms (44,36). Kavi There were some who were experts in composing various types of poems (Kavayah Kavyakartarah Nanakavyavisaradah) (44.35). Kayastha M The word Kayastha does not occur in the ancient Dharmasutras of Gautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana, 54 Ibid.

} 247 Vasistha, nor in the Manusmrti. In the first centuries of the christian era the Kayastha was merely an officer and the word was possibly derived from or is a Sanskrit approximation of some foreign word for an officer, though in some parts of the country the Kayasthas also had come to form a caste in medieval times. The Brahma Purana mentions them along with the 55 Mallas, Dutas and others (44.37). f Kesakara There were some people who followed the occupation of hair-dressing. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Kesaravikravin → It means one who sells the mane of a lion or horse.56 The Brahma Purana states that one who sells kesara suffers in the taptaloha hell (22.11).57 Khadgakara of preparing swords. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Some people followed the occupation It is mentioned in the list of the ms. Elsewhere it is said that a khadgakarta suffers in the Visasana hell (22.16,17). Kuhakajivin - One who maintains himself on wild cocks. The Brahma Purana states that a Kuhakajivin suffers in the 55 Kane P.V., Ibid., P.76. 56 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.310. 57 The reading of the ms. 'ga', viz. 'Kesarivikrayi' seems to be better, which would mean 'one who sells lions'.

Asipatravana hell.58 to mean 'magician' 59 248 The Hindi translation takes the word Kukkutaposaka The Brahma Purana states that one who maintains the Kukkutas or Cocks suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.20). Kumbhakara Panini mentions it in the gana kulaladi (Pan. IV.3.118). Usanas (32-33) says that he is the offspring of a Clandestine union of a brahmin with a vaisya female. Devala quoted in Parasara Madhaviya (II.1.P.431) includes the potter among the sudras.60 He is called 'Kumbhara' in Gujarati. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.) Kundakara The meaning of the word Kunda is given as a'turner's lathe' and that of 'Kundakara' as a turner. Therefore, it seems that some people maintained themselves by turning lathes. Even at present the sharpening of iron razors and knives is done on the turner's lathe. The Brahma Purana mentions it along with others (44.36). 58 22.24, missing in the ms. 'kha' 59 Kalyana, Op.Cit., P.313. 60 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.78. 61 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.291.

249 Kundasi One who is supported by an adulterine. According to Manu (III.174) a Kunda is the offspring of a 62 clandestine intercourse between a married brahmana woman whose 63 husband is living and a brahmana male. The Brahma Purana states that a Kundasi brahmin falls down from his high status (223.30). Again it is stated that a 'Kundasi' falls in the Rudhirandha hell (22.21) 64 Laksavikreta The Brahma Purana states that one who sells Laksa, i.e. a kind of red dye or lac obtained from the conchineal or a similar insect as well as from the resin of a particular tree 65 suffers in the Krmipuya holl (22.19). Lavajiva One who maintains himself in the bird called Lava or quails is called a Lavajiva (44.38). Lavenajivin One who maintains himself by selling salt (44.33). The Brahma Purana also states that a Lavanavikreta, i.e. one who sells salt suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.19). Lohakara Narada recommends utilising the services 66 The of an ironsmith who is so by caste in the fire ordeal. 62 Monier Williams, Ibid., PP. 289-90. 63 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.98. 64 The Hindi translation of the Brahma Purana, Op.Cit., translates the word 'Kundasi' as 'Dogaleka anna khanevala'. 65 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.899.. 66 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.94.

250 Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms.'kha' (44.28 ff.). Lubdhaka The Lubdhaka is the same as Vyadha mentioned by Sumantu in Apararka P. 1176. The Brahma Purana mentions the hunter jara at whose hands lord krsna met his death (211.5). The Brahma Purana also identifies the Vyadha and the Lubdhaka (80.6,27). Madhuha A madhuha or one who destroys the beehives suffers in the Vaitaran (22.23). Madhvivikrayaka The Brahma Purana states that one who sell Madhvi, i.e. a kind of intoxicating liquor suffers in the taptaloha hell (22.11). Magadha The opinion is divided among the scholars regarding his origin. Usanas (7-8) says that he becomes the bandin of brahmins and ksatriyas, he maintains himself by lauding or as a messenger or servant of a vaisya. Panini (IV.1.70) derives the word Magadha from the country Magadha, 67 but apparantly not in the sense of a caste. The Brahma Purana states that along with the Suta, the Magadha too was created from the sacrifice at the time of king Prthu's birth and they were requested to eulogise king Prthu but as they did not know about Prthu's greatness they were asked to eulogise king 67 Ibid., PP. 90-91.

251 Prthu as he would be in the future and from that time They arc onwards they were employed to bestow blessings. called 'Bandins' and the country Magadha was given to them (4.61-68). Mahisika The Br. F. states that one who maintains hinself on buffaloes suffers in the Rudhirandha hell (22.21). Malakara The Vedavyasasmrti (1.10-11) includes the Malakara among the gudras along with barbars, potters and others.68 The Brahma Purana mentions the maker of garlands in the list of the ms. 'Icha' (14.28 ff.). Malla Manu (X.22) states that it is another name of Jhalla. He is a wrestler of boxer by profession and is the offspring of an outcaste satriya by a ksatriya female who was previously the wife of another sub-caste. The Brahma Purana mentions him along with the Dutas, Kayasthas and others (44.37). 69 Mansavikreta - The Brahma Purana states that one who sells flesh or meat suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.10). He is Kixen again referred to (44.33). 68 Ibid., P. 78. 69 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., F.793.

252 Mangalapathaka A blessing-reciter. There were some people who were professional well-wishers or panegyrists (44.34). Manikara According to Usanas (39.40) he is the offspring of a clandestine union between a ksatriya male and a vaisya female and he gains his livelihood by working on beads, by performing pearls and dealing in coral and conches. According to the sutasamhita he is the clandestine offspring of a vaisya male from a vaisya female. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms.'kha' (44.28 ff.). Marjaraposaka - The Brahma Purana states that one who maintains cats goes to the Krmipuya hell (22.20). Some people maintained themselves Matsyavikravin by selling fish. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the According to Usanas (44), a Matsyams. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). bandhaka is an offspring of a taksaka from a ksatriya woman. Mesapala Some people were shepherds (44.32). Mleccha According to the sutasamhita he is the offspring of a clandestine union of a brahmin woman and a vaisya male. 70 The Brahma Purana states that lord Brahma created the Mlecchas along with the four castes and others (45.35). 70 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.92.

253 Mrgapala Some people maintained themselves by rearing animals or deer (44.32). Mrgavyadha - It is stated that a hunter suffers in the Vahnijvala hell (22.25). Mrgayu The Brahma Purana includes the hunter among the Fanktidusaka brahmins and prohibits him from being invited at a sraddha ceremony (220.135). ፣ Mrgopajivin- There were some people who maintained themselves on animals (44.38). 71 Mudgakara The meaning of the word 'mudga' is 'Phaselous mungo', 'a cover' or a kind of sea-bird. The meaning of the word Mudgakara seems to be one who makes I covers or lids. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Naksatrasucaka The Brahma Purana states that a Naksatrasucaka, i.e. a star-indicator or an astrologer suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.18). Elsewhere he is included among the panktidusaka brahmins (220.134). these examples show that an astrologer was not considered Both to be a respectable man by profession. 71 Monier Williams, Op,Cit., P.822.

254 Napita A barber. Usanas (32.34) and Vaikhanasa (X.12) say that he is the offspring of a clandestine affair between a brahmana male and a vaisya female. Parasara (XI.21) says that the offspring of a brahmin from a sudra girl is called Dasa if samskaras are performed on him, but if they are not performed he becomes a Napita. There is a 1difference of opinion among the sastrakaras regarding the meaning of Napita to be either urdhvanapita or the adhonapita?2 The Brahma Purana mentions him along with others (44.32). Naravaidya A doctor (44.39). Nartaka According to Usanas he is the offspring of a ranjaka from a vaisya woman and his profession is that of a singer. Brhaspati quoted in Parasara Madhaviya (II. Part I, P.380) separately mentions in the same verse Nata and Narbaka.73 The Brahma Purana mentions him along with singer, Mangalapathaka, Sailusa and others (44.34). At one place the Brahma Purana mentions Natas and Nartakas together (47.67). Nata He is one of the seven Antyajas. Harita quoted by Apararka (P.279) distinguishes between Nata and Sailasa and Apararka remarks that Nata is a specific caste while Sailusa though not a nata by caste makes his living by 72 Kane P.V., Op. Cit., P. 85. 73 Ibid., P.85.

255 going on the stage.74 The Brahma Purana states that the Natas, Nartakas and those expert in singing came to celebrate the sacrifice of king Indradyumna (47.67). Nisada - Opinion is divided as regards the origin of the varna Nisada.75 The Brahma Purana states that the Nisidas, dark and dwarfish, were produced from the left hand of king Vena and they dwelt on the Vindhya (4.43-47). The Vayu Purana (Vol.II, Ch.I, 120-121) and the Bhagavata Purana (IV.14.42 ff.) tell the same story. Paksyupaiivin on birds (44.38). Some people maintained themselves Parakara The Br. PZ. mentions it in the list of The meaning is not clear. the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Parvakara The word 'Parvakara' is taken to mean 'making arrows' or 'putting on a fine dress' whereas the word 'Parvakarin' is taken to mean one who for the sake of gain performs on common days such ceremonies as should be performed 76 only on festivals. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Elsewhere he is included among the Panktidusaka brahmins (220.134). 75 Ibid., PP. 86-87. 76 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.609.

256 Patravikrayin Some people maintained themselves by selling leaves (44.31). Pavaka The meaning seems to be one whose occupation is to purify metals like gold, silver, etc.(44.36). Phalavikrayin Some people maintained themselves by selling fruit (44.31). Pulkasa WP According to the Baud.Dh.S. (1.9.14) and Manu (X.18) he is the offspring of a Nisada male from a sudra female. Opinion is divided among the sastrakaras about his origin.77 The Brahma Purana refers to Pulkasa along with candala (240.31). Elsewhere it is stated that one who offers sraddha with the money obtained through injustice does not satisfy his ancestors suffering in the birth of a Pulkasa (220.98). Puranarthavisarada There were some people who were proficient in explaining the meaning of the puranas (44.34). Rajabhata W The Brahma Purana states that one who kills a Rajabhata suffers in the Taptakumbha hell. The 'Rajabhata' ala here seems to mean 'the royal messenger'. (22.10). 77 Ibid., PP. 88-89.

} 257 Rajaka According to Vaikhanas (X.15) and the Dhobi Sutasamhita he is the offspring of a Pulkasa or a Vaideha from a brahmana woman, while according to Usanas (18) he is the offspring of a Pulkasa male from a vaisya girl. is a scheduled caste in U.P., Bihar and C.P. in Bengal.78 The Brahma Purana mentions it along with others (44.31). Rangopalivin _ One who maintains himself on colour. AccordHere it may mean either a dyer or a painter (44.30). -ing to Usanas (19) a Ranjaka or a dyer is an offspring of a 79 clandestine union of a sudra male anda a ksatriya female. The Brahma Purana states that a Rangopajivin suffers in the Rudhirandha hell (22,21,22). W Rasavikreta The Brahma Purana states that one who sells Rasa i.e. syrup or liquor seller or a dealer in essence or spices suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22,18,19). Ratnadusavita - One who spoils the jewels or scratches them suffers in the Krmibhaksya hell (22.19). Ratnapariksaka There were some people who were experts in discriminating the various qualities and types of jewels (44.35). 78 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.93. 79 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.94.

258 Rupakara The meaning is 'dyer', one who gives form or colour to the cloth (44.38). Ruthaka The Brahma Purana mentions it along with others (44.36). The meaning is not clear. Sailusa - Visnu Dharma Sutra 51.13, Manu IV.214, Harita quoted by Apararka P.279, distinguish him from Rangavatari and the Brahma Purana (quoted by Apararka P.1178) defines him as one who finds out employment for natas, 80 and also defines the Rangavatarin as a nata who goes on the stage for livelihood and who e introduces various changes in his appearance and dress. 81 Both these definitions are not met with in the present Brahma Purana but it mentions Sailusa along with others (44.34). Saktuvikrayin - Some people maintained themselves by selling barley-meal (44.33). Sakuni One who maintains himself by showing omens goes to the Rudhirandha hell (22.22). Sandha The Brahma Purana states that one should purify himself after seeing a eunuch (221.142). 80 Vrttyanvesi natanam tu sa tu sailusakah smrtah ) Brahma Purana quoted by Apararka, P.1178. 81 Brahma Purana quoted by Apararka, P.1178, vide Kane, P.97.

259 Sarakarta The Brahma Purana states that one who prepares 533 arrows suffers in the Vedhaka hell (22.16). The Brahma Purana ff.). Silpin Some people were artisans and craftsmen. mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 Somavikrayin The Brahma Purana states that one who sells Soma, i.e. Somarase suffers in the Rudhirandha hell (22,22). Again it is stated that a Somavikrayi brahmin falls down from the status of his high birth (223.30). Elsewhere the Somavikrayin is included among the panktidusaka brahmins (220.132). Sragvikravin Some people maintained themselves by selling garlands. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.30 ff.). Suradhutopaiivin - Some people maintained themselves by distilling spirituous liquor or wine, i.e. by keeping taverns (44.370. Visnu Dh.S. 51.15, Manu IV.216, Yaj.II.48 and the Brahma purana (quoted by Apararka P.1177) mention the Saundika or wine,seller 82 the present Brahma Purana but the word is not mot with.in 82 Kane P.V., Op.Cit., P.97.

260 Suta - According to Gautama (IV.15), Baud.Dh.S. (1.9.9), Vas. (18.6), Kautilya (III.7), Manu (X.11), Narada (Stripumsa 110), Visnu Dh.S. (16.6), Yaj. (1.93) and Sutasamhita, he is a pratiloma sprung from a ksatriya male and a brahmana woman. Kautilya is careful to add that the suta who figures in the puranas as the reciter is quite different from this.83 The Br P. states that the sutas were created from sauti - the sacrificial altar in order to praise the good deeds of king Prthu and they were given the region Anupadesa (4.60-67). Svadhakara Some people followed the occupation of making axes or knives. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Svapaka He is one of the Antyajas. According to the Baud. Dh. S. (I.9.12), Kautilya (III.7), he is the offspring of an ugra male from a female of the ksatra subcaste, while according to Manu (X.19) he is the offspring of a ksatra male from an ugra female, Vaik.(X.15) and Sutasamhita say that he is the offspring of a candala male and a brahmana female while according to Usanas (11) he is the offspring of a cangdala male from a vaisya woman. The 83 Ibid., P.98. 84 Ibid., P.97. " 84

} 261 Brahma Purana states that as Satyavrata, king Trayyaruna's son. carried away a maiden from her wedding hall he was abandoned by his father and was asked to live with the svapakas (9.97- 103). The Svapaka is again mentioned along with the candala and Pulkasa (240.31). Svaposaka It is stated that one who maintains dogs suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.20).. Svarnakara According to Visnu Dh.S. (X.4) and Narada (knadana 274) a goldsmith or a dealer in bronze or a bania who was to examine the balance in the balance ordeal. Manu (IX.292) condemns him as the worst of all rogues. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Tallapathaka NOW The meaning is not clear. The Brahma Purana mentions it along with others (44.38). Tailavikrayaka Some maintained themselves by selling oil (44.30). Taittirika There were some people who maintained themselves by catching partridges (44.38). Tambulipanaiivin - One who maintains himself by selling betels. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.30).

262 Tamrakara - According to Usanas (14), a coppersmith is the offspring of an ayogava from a brahmana woman. The Brahma Purana mentions it along with others (44.36). Tantuvaya The weaver is mentioned in the Visnu Dh. S. (51.13) and Sankha quoted by Apararka P.1175. He is regarded as a sudra by the Mahabhasya on Panini II.4.10 and as excluded from sacrificial rites. The Brahma Purana mentions him along with others (44.38), Tilavikreta - It is stated that one who sells sesamum suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.19). Toyavikrayaka Some people maintained themselves by selling water. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.), Trnavikrayaka - Some people maintained themselves by selling grass (44.29). Tumbikara One who prepares gourds. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms.'kha' (44.28 ff.). Peta According to Manu (X.9), Baudhayana Dh.S. (1.9.5), Kautilya III.7, Yajnavalkya 1.92, and Anusasana 48.7 he is an anuloma offspring of a ksatriya male from a sudra woman while according to Usanas (verse 41) he is the

263 offspring of the union of a brahmin with a sudra woman. 86 85 The Ugra, according to Manu X.9 is of cruel or rude conduct and employment, as killing or catching snakes, etc., but according to the tantras he is an encomiast or bard.8 The Brahma Purana states that one should not take food from an Ugra (223. (23). Vadhyapala The Brahma Purana states that a Vadhyapala, i.e. one who keeps watch over the animals and victims to be killed suffers in the Taptaloha hell (22.11). The Brahma Purana (quoted by Apararka, P,1177) states that a sunika or saunika i.e. a butcher is a 'Pusumaraka'. But it is not found in the present Brahma Purana Vahaka One who does the business of a carrier or The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms.'kha' a porter. (44.28 ff.). The doctors were there (44.39). Vaidya Varahanosaka G The Brahma Purana states that one who maintains boars suffers in the Krmipuye hell (22.20). Vardhusi The Brahma Purana includes a Vardhusi or the usurer among the panktidusaka brahmins (220.132). 85 For details vide Kane, Op.Cit., PP.73-74. 86 Monier Williams, Op.Cit., P.172.

264 Vartika or 'quails' (44.38). One who maintains himself on 'Vartika' Vastrasucaka According to Usanas (V.43) he is an anuloma born of the marriage of a vaisya male from a sudra female and 'Sucika' according to Vaikhanasa (X.15) and (sanas (V.22) is a pratiloma, Offspring of a Vaidehaka from a ksatriya woman and engages in the work of sewing with a needle. Saucika, according to the lexicon of Amara, is the same as Tunnavaya and the Brahma Purana quoted by Apararka (P.1178) also equates suci with Tunnavaya.87 Though this reference is not found in the present Br. P.m, there is a reference to 'Vastrasucaka' meaning a tailor(44.32). Elsewhere the Brahma Purana states that a suci suffers in the Rudhirandha hell (22.21). Vastravikrayaka One who sells clothes (44.30). • Vedavikrayaka - One who sells vedas suffers in Sabala hell (22.13). Vetrakara There were some people who made things from reed. The Brahma Purana mentions it in the list of the ms. 'kha' (44.28 ff.). Vihangaposaka The Brahma Purana states that one who maintains the birds suffers in the Krmipuya hell (22.20). 87 Kane P.V., O.Cit., P.98.

265 Visaghna Those who are skilled in destroying or counteracting the effects of poison (44.35). Vrksavaidya - One who is an expert in the science related to trees (44.39). Vyadha - The Brahma Purana describes a hunter who was a staunch devotee of lord Siva (A.169). He is the same as Lubdhaka. See 'Lubdhaka'. Vyokara There were some people who followed the occupation of blacksmiths (44.36).