Limitations of this thesis and future research directions

There are several limitations to this present study. The first is that this research has focused only on the medicinal substances and the cases of diseases with their cures in the Chapters on Medicine, while many other medical data (such as foods and drinks belonging to medicines for proper time and improper time, the physician Jīvaka’s healing cases, accounts of the Buddha’s sickness, some diseases and deformities, certain remedies or health maintenance measures, and so on) recorded elsewhere in the Vinaya Piṭakas have been excluded because they are not within the scope of this study. Thus certain medical information has been left out and a complete view of ancient Indian medical lore (that of śramaṇ-ic medicine) has not yet been achieved.

Another limitation relates to the sources. Although this research work has utilised most of the versions of the Chapter on Medicine, yet it does not comprise all. The Tibetan version of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Bhaiṣajyavastu is not included in this study, due to the inadequacy of the researcher’s present knowledge level of the Tibetan language to make use of this source. Hence, thorough examination of the medical details in all of the versions of the Chapter on Medicine has not been accomplished, and any possible differences between the Tibetan Bhaiṣajyavastu and other versions of this text are not known.

Due to the limit of time for this research study, the medicinal substances mentioned in the Chapter on Medicine (as covered in Chapter Four) cannot be described one by one. Drugs can only be introduced according to the groups into which they have been classified, without giving details for each of the plants, minerals, and so forth in terms of Āyurveda and modern science. Readers cannot obtain such information in this thesis and will have to explore it in Āyurvedic or modern scientific texts.

The last limitation in this thesis is that, though most of the medicinal substances and diseases have been identified, there are still some which cannot be ascertained, such as the gum-resins taka, takapattī, takapaṇṇi, takakarṇī, and tadāgata;the decoction of pakkava; the scented substance kālānusārya;the ocular disease baiyi; and so on. Hence further search is required to find out what they are. This makes the findings and interpretations in this study not entirely complete.

On the basis of the method and findings of this study, further research could be conducted in the future. The present study lacks information of the medical facts listed in the Tibetan version of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Bhaiṣajyavastu. This text can be examined and the medical particulars compared with those in other Chapters on Medicine especially the Sanskrit and Chinese versions of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. This will overcome the second limitation as mentioned above and make the study on drugs and diseases in the Chapters on Medicine more thorough.

All other medical facts recorded in the Vinaya Piṭakas and even those in discourses in the Nikāyas and Āgamas that have not been examined in this study, can be included in a future study, so as to demonstrate a fuller view of the medical knowledge preserved in early Buddhist literature, and hence to deal with the first limitation as shown above.

By employing the three-fold interpretative method, extensive research studies can be conducted to examine medical information in Buddhist scriptures belonging to different stages of the history of Indian Buddhism (such as the Early, Sectarian, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna stages of Buddhism). Such studies could demonstrate variations in medical doctrines and practices in different stages of Indian Buddhism, and hence help to map the historical development of ancient Indian medicine. Moreover, with modification of the second part of this method–by substituting explanations of Āyurveda with those of traditional Chinese medicine–medical material in Chinese Buddhist works composed by Chinese scholars (e.g. the section on curing diseases in Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao 修習止觀坐禪法要 (Essences of Teachings on Practising Sitting Meditation by Tranquillity and Insight) (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1915), and the part explaining the section on relieving illness in Jin guangming jing wenju 金光明經文句 (Commentary on the Discourse on Golden Light) (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1785)),^[1] which often involves knowledge of traditional Chinese medicine, can be examined and interpreted. Hence, medical knowledge across different Buddhist literature can be explored and compared.

Findings and interpretations in this thesis may act as a base on which implications or even applications of the medical data can be explored. For instance, relationships between humours in ancient Indian medicine and organ systems in modern biomedicine can be further investigated. The pharmacological properties of the medicinal substances mentioned in the Chapter on Medicine, as well as their modern usages, can also be studied. The Buddhist perspectives on mind-body relationship may be employed for supporting and promoting holistic healthcare. Therefore, ancient Indian medical knowledge recorded in the Chapter on Medicine as well as the Buddhist viewpoints on health and disease could be further researched for possible meanings and utilisation in the modern world.

In fact, there could be a wide range of studies pertaining to “Buddhist medicine”. Various discussions on its definition, philosophical basis, ethical issues, historical development, transmission from India to other places, influence on other medical traditions, practice in the past, application to modern healthcare, and so on are potential topics in this field for future research.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Both of these works belong to Zhiyi 智顗 (538-597). The former was written by him, and the latter came from his talks which were composed by his student Guanding 灌頂 (561-632).