Internal Medicine (b): Wind Diseases

Many medical cases recorded in the Chapters on Medicine (and in other parts in the Vinayas) pertain to “wind disease.” It probably would have been a common illness in the Buddha’s time. The majority of the accounts of this disease just give a general term “wind disease” (Pāli: vātābādha;Sanskrit: vāyvābādha; Chinese: 風病, 風疾, 患風, 風患動, etc.), without specifying whether the whole body or part of the body is affected. There are a few exceptions where bodily parts are specified: the abdomen (udaravātābādha) (Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 210), the limbs (aṅgavāta) (Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 205), and the joints (pabbavāta) (Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 205). There are no descriptions of presenting symptoms or signs of wind disease in the records, except for one case where the Buddha had a wind disease and experienced a painful backbone (Taishō Tripiṭaka 1435. 278a18).

The abundant data on wind disease are as follows:

Theravāda:—“At that time the Venerable Pilindavaccha had a wind disease. The physicians said thus: ‘Oil should be cooked.’ [The Exalted One said:] ‘I allow, monks, an oil decoction.’^[1] Liquor had to be put into that oil decoction. ‘I allow, monks, to put liquor into the oil decoction.’ At that time the monks belonging to a group of six cooked oils with very much liquor put in. Having drunk those [oil decoctions], they were intoxicated. [The Exalted One said:] ‘Monks, the oil should not be cooked with too much liquor put in. Whoever would drink [this], he should cause to be dealt with according to the law.^[2] I allow, monks, to drink such oil with liquor put in: in whatever oil decoction, neither the colour, nor the smell, nor the taste of liquor is perceived.’ At that time, the monks had a lot of cooked oil with very much liquor put in. Then this [idea] occurred to the monks: ‘How is it to be followed when oil is added with too much liquor?’ [The Exalted One said:] ‘I allow, monks, to apply [it] as an ointment.’ ^[3] At that time the Venerable Pilindavaccha had much oil cooked. A container for oil was not found. [The Exalted One said:] ‘I allow, monks, three [types of] vessels: vessel made of copper, vessel made of wood, [and] vessel made of fruit.’”^[4]

“At that time the Venerable Pilindavaccha had rheumatism in the limbs.^[5] [The Exalted One said:] ‘I allow, monks, the perspiration therapy.’ [The illness] was not becoming better. ‘I allow, monks, the perspiration with requisite materials.’ [The illness] was not becoming better. ‘I allow, monks, the great perspiration.’ [The illness] was not becoming better. ‘I allow, monks, [the use of] hemp water.’ [The illness] was not becoming better. ‘I allow, monks, a bathroom.’”^[6]

“At that time the Venerable Pilindavaccha had arthritis. ^[7] ‘I allow, monks, to release blood.’^[8] [The illness] was not becoming better. ‘I allow, monks, to take [blood] by horn^[9] after releasing blood.’”^[10]

“At that time a certain monk had an abdominal wind disease. He drank salted sour gruel.^[11] His abdominal wind disease subsided. [The monks] informed this matter to the Exalted One. ‘I allow, monks, the salted sour gruel for one who is sick; for one who is not sick, [I allow] to consume [it] as a drink [which is] mixed with water.’”^[12]

“Then the Exalted One, while travelling gradually towards Rājagaha, arrived there. There, the Exalted One stayed in Rājagaha at the place where the squirrels were fed in the Bamboo Grove. At that time the Exalted One had an abdominal wind disease. Then the Venerable Ānanda [recalled that:] formerly the Exalted One’s abdominal wind disease became comfortable by [consuming] rice-gruel containing three pungent substances.^[13] Having prepared sesame, rice-grain and green gram by himself, caused to keep them inside [the dwelling place], and cooked them inside [the dwelling place] by himself, he offered [it] to the Exalted One^[14] [saying]: ‘May the Exalted One drink the rice-gruel containing three pungent substances.’”^[15]

Dharmaguptaka:—“At that time the Buddha was in Śrāvastī. Then there was a monk afflicted with wind [disease]. The physician instructed [him] to use sour barley fluid. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow the consumption.’ [The monk] did not know how to make [it]. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow a lay attendant to clean a container [and] to soak the barley [grains] until they break open. [Then] the fluid is filtered for drinking. If the barley fluid is stinky, [the container holding the fluid] should be covered. If the fluid and dregs both come out [while taking the fluid], [I] allow making a filter.’ [The monk] did not know how to make a filter. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow making a filter of [material] such as copper, wood, or bamboo. It is made just like a water filter-cylinder, [whether] it is triangular, big, or small. If the barley [grains in the container] is getting dry, [you] cause a lay attendant to add water.’ Then the sick monk drank the barley fluid in front of many people. The other monks saw [that and] they all disliked that. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should not drink [the sour barley fluid] in front of many people; [you] should drink it at a concealed place.’ Then all the monks had a need of [the sour barley fluid]. The Buddha said: ‘All [monks] should drink together.’ Then there were monks [that] each of them used separate container for drinking [the sour barley fluid]. These containers became stinky. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should not drink [the sour barley fluid] with individual containers. [You] should all share and use one container for drinking.’ Then there was a monk, after drinking [the sour barley fluid], did not wash the container and gave it to other monks [to use]. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should not do thus. [You] should give [the container] to other monks after washing [it].’”^[16]

“At that time Śāriputra was afflicted with wind [disease]. The physician instructed [him] to consume lotus root.”^[17]

“At that time Śāriputra was afflicted with wind [disease]. The physician instructed [him] to use five kinds of fat: brown bear fat, fish fat, donkey fat, pig fat, [and] alligator fat. [He] informed the Buddha. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow using [these]. [Being] accepted in proper time, filtered in proper time, [and] cooked in proper time, they are consumed according to the teaching on oil. [Being] accepted in improper time, filtered in improper time, [and] cooked in improper time, they should not be consumed; if [one] uses [thus], [he] is dealt with according to the law.’”^[18]

“At that time a monk was afflicted with wind [disease and he] had a need of medicine. The physician instructed [him to consume] the fluid from soaked barley. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow the use.’ There was a need of fluid from barley soaked in oil, [and] a need of fluid from barley soaked in molasses. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow taking [these].’”^[19]

“At that time the Exalted One was afflicted with wind [disease]. The physician gave instruction to mix three kinds of medicine.”^[20]

“Then a monk was afflicted with wind [disease]. The physician instructed [him] to make medicine for removing wind. Herein the medicine for removing wind [referred to] steamed rice-grains, [or] steamed brewers’ grains, or barley, or all herbs for curing wind [disease], or bran, or boiled urine. [He] informed the Buddha [about this]. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow [making it].’”^[21]

“At that time there was a monk afflicted with wind [disease]. The physician instructed [him] to use smoke. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow using smoke.’ Then there was a need of a smoking pipe. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow making [it].’ He used precious material to make [the smoking pipe]. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should not use precious material to make the [smoking] pipe. [You] should use bone, or tooth, or horn, or iron, or copper, or pewter, or lead, or wood to make [it]. If there is a worry about burning at the smoke outlet, [I] allow fixing iron [at the outlet].’ Regarding the worry about the [smoking] pipe being scattered, the Buddha said: ‘[I] allow making a bag for carrying [the smoking pipe].’ [The bag] was not held firm by hand. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should make a strap [on the bag which can be] hung on the shoulder.’ That [monk] had a need of pill medicine. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow making [it].’ [The pill medicine] was not held firm by hand. [The Buddha said:] ‘[You] should place [it] in the bag for the fuming pipe.’”^[22]

Mahīśāsaka:—“At that time Śāriputra had a wind disease. Maudgalyāyana went [to him] and asked: ‘When you were in lay life, did you have this illness?’ [Śāriputra] answered: ‘Yes.’ ‘What prescription [did you use] for treating [and] relieving [it]?’ [Śāriputra] replied: ‘By consuming lotus-root.’”^[23]

“A monk got a wind disease and he should consume oil. The monks begged [this] for him; they could not get it, but obtained sesame seeds. [They] informed the Buddha on this [matter]. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should cause a lay attendant to make oil [from sesame seeds and] to make [it] without smell of food. It is [to be] accepted for use in seven days.’”^[24]

“There were monks who got the wind disease, [and] they should consume the fat of ox, donkey, camel, [or] sturgeon. The monks begged [it] for [the sick monks]; they could not get it, but obtained four kinds of fatty meat. [They] informed the Buddha on this [matter]. The Buddha said: ‘[You] should cause a lay attendant to cook [the fatty meat and] take out the grease [which is] further boiled. If it is cooked in proper time, boiled in proper time, filtered in proper time, [and] accepted in improper time, it cannot be consumed when the night has passed. If it is cooked in proper time, boiled in proper time, filtered in proper time, [and] accepted in proper time, it can be used in seven days.’”^[25]

“There was a monk [afflicted] with wind disease, [and he] should perspire. [The monk] informed the Buddha on this [matter]. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow perspiration.’”^[26]

“There was a monk [afflicted] with wind disease, [and he] should consume red salt, white salt, [and] various salts. [The monk] informed the Buddha on this [matter]. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow the consumption.’”^[27]

“There was a monk [afflicted] with wind disease, [and he] should mix urine with oil, ash, [and] bitter liquor for rubbing the body. [The monk] informed the Buddha on this [matter]. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow mixing [these] for rubbing the body.’”^[28]

“The Buddha was in Vaiśālī. At that time the Exalted One was afflicted with wind [disease]. Ānanda cooked a medicated gruel himself [and] offered [it] to the Buddha.”^[29]

Sarvāstivāda:—“The Buddha was in Śrāvastī. At that time the elder Śāriputra was afflicted with an illness of wind and coldness. The physician said: ‘[You] should use sour gruel.’ Śāriputra said: ‘The Buddha has not allowed me to use sour gruel.’ The monks informed the Buddha on this matter. The Buddha said: ‘From now, [I] allow the use of sour gruel.’ The elder Upāli asked the Buddha: ‘What things are used to make the sour gruel?’ The Buddha said: ‘Use barley [grains which have] the coarse hulls removed. Do not break [them and] cook [them] for a short while. [Then] place [the cooked barley grains which are] immersed in the soup in a container, [and] let it become sour. [If] it is accepted in the day time, it is consumed in the day time; [if] it is accepted in the night time, it is consumed in the night time. It should not be used beyond the time period.’”^[30]

“The Buddha was in Śrāvastī. Cold air arose in the Buddha’s body. The physician said: ‘Should consume the gruel with three pungent substances.’ The Buddha told Ānanda: ‘Prepare the gruel with three pungent substances.’ Ānanda received the instruction. He at once went into Śrāvastī to beg for sesame, round-grained rice, black gram, [and] red bean. [He then] cooked [these] together with the three pungent substances [and] offered the gruel to the Buddha.”^[31]

“The Buddha was in Śrāvastī. At that time the elder Śāriputra had a wind disease. The physician instructed: ‘Wash [yourself] with warm water.’ [Śāriputra] replied: ‘The Buddha has not allowed washing with warm water.’ [He] informed the Buddha about this matter. The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow washing with warm water.’”^[32]

“The Buddha was in Śrāvastī. At that time the Exalted One was afflicted with a wind [disease and had] a painful backbone. Then the physician instructed: ‘Anoint the body with ghee [and] oil. Having anointed the body, lie down in a trough filled with warm water.’ The Buddha spoke to Ānanda: ‘Put warm water in a trough [and] bring [it here].’ Ānanda received the instruction. [He] brought a trough filled with warm water. Then the Buddha anointed [his] body with ghee [and] oil, [and he] lay down in [the trough filled with warm water]. Having lain [in the warm water, his] illness was relieved. The Buddha, on this matter, convoked the community of monks. [He] addressed the monks: ‘From now [onwards], [I] allow [you], if there is a wind disease, to anoint [your] body with ghee [and] oil, [and] to lie down in warm water.’”^[33]

Mūlasarvāstivāda (Sanskrit):—“The occasion was in Śrāvastī. Then a certain monk had a debility arisen which was pertaining to wind disease. He had approached the presence of a physician. Having approached, he said: ‘Debility has arisen [in me], which is pertaining to the wind disease. Please point out the medicine.’ That [physician] said: ‘Noble one, please use fat. You will become healthy.’ The monk said: ‘Good Sir, am I a cannibal?’ That [physician] said: ‘Monk, this is the medicine for you. It is not possible to become healthy otherwise.’ The monks informed this matter to the Exalted One. The Exalted One said: ‘If the physician tells–“this is the medicine for you, monk; it is not possible to become healthy otherwise”–[then] fat should be used.’ The monks did not know [which fat to use]. The physician was asked by them [and] he said: ‘Noble one, your teacher indeed is omniscient. Please go to him [and] ask him.’ The monks informed this matter to the Exalted One. The Exalted One said: ‘Five fats should be used. Which are the five? [They are] the fish fat, Gangetic porpoise fat, alligator fat, bear fat, and pig fat. Thus these are the five fats. … [Being] cooked in proper time, trickled in proper time, accepted in proper time, [and] taken possession of in proper time, they should be consumed by using as oil for seven days.’”^[34]

“The occasion was in Śrāvastī. The Venerable Śāriputra had a debility arisen which was pertaining to wind disease. The Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana thought over: ‘Attendance on the Venerable Śāriputra has mostly been performed by me, but a physician has not been asked at any time. So I should ask a physician now.’ He had approached the presence of a physician. ‘Good Sir, the Venerable Śāriputra has this and this debility arisen. Please point out the suitable medicine for him.’ That [physician] said: ‘Noble one, salted sour gruel will be the medicine.’”^[35]

Mūlasarvāstivāda (Chinese):—“The occasion was in Śrāvastī. There was a monk who was afflicted with wind disease in [his] body. [He] went to the place of a physician [and] asked: ‘Good Sir, I am afflicted with wind disease. Please prescribe medicine for me.’ Then that physician said: ‘Noble one, it is proper to use fat of living beings. The illness is to be relieved.’ The monk replied: ‘Good Sir, how at present could I be fit to eat this [kind of] fat?’ The physician replied: ‘Only this medicine [can heal]. Others cannot relieve [your illness].’ Then the monks, on this account, completely informed the Exalted One. The Buddha said: ‘A monk has an illness–if the physician said [that] only this is the medicine and others cannot relieve [the illness]–[then he] should use the fat.’ Then the monks did not know which fat to use. They went back [and] asked the physician. The physician replied: ‘Since your teacher is an omniscient one, [you] can go to consult [him]. You will know that.’ Then the monks went at once to ask the Buddha. The Buddha said: ‘There are five kinds of fat: one, fish fat; two, fat of finless porpoise; three, shark fat; four, bear fat; five, pig fat. … (Being) cooked in proper time, filtered in proper time, accepted in proper time, [and] taken possession of in proper time, [they] should be used according to the teaching on consuming oil. [They] are used in seven days; beyond seven days [they] should not be consumed.’”^[36]

“The occasion was in Śrāvastī. The Venerable Śāriputra was afflicted with wind disease in [his] body. The Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana saw that [Śāriputra] was having an illness. He had such thought: ‘I have frequently looked after Śāriputra during his sickness. I have not asked a physician [about his illness]. Now it should be appropriate to ask [the physician].’ He at once went to the physician’s place [and] asked: ‘Good Sir, the Venerable Śāriputra is afflicted with such and such illness. Please prescribe medicine for him.’ The physician replied: ‘Noble one, by judging from his condition of illness, it is appropriate [for him] to consume salted vinegar. [His illness] will be relieved.’”^[37]

“At that time the Exalted One was in Kāśī.^[38] ... At that time the Exalted One... had wind disease arisen. Then the Venerable Ānanda had this thought: ‘I often make offerings to the Exalted One. I have not asked a physician [about the Exalted One’s sickness]. Now [the Exalted One] is afflicted with wind disease. I [should] go to ask the physician.’ Having arrived [at the physician’s place], he asked: ‘Good Sir, the Exalted One is at present afflicted with wind disease. Please help me with the prescription.’ The physician replied: ‘Noble one, it is suitable to use ghee to decoct three kinds of astringent medicine. Consuming [that], [the Exalted One’s] illness will immediately be relieved and [he will] recover.’”^[39]

“... In the ancient past of immeasurable aeons... there was a Buddha born [in the world] whose name was Śākyamuni.... At that time that Buddha suddenly had a wind illness... there was a need of ghee, oil, and liquid honey.... [They] completely anointed the Buddha’s body with ghee, honey and so on. [They then] bathed [the Buddha] with warm water. Holding the fluid made from granulated sugar, [they] offered [it] to the Buddha. [These were done] for the purpose of healing [the Buddha’s] illness. [That Buddha] at once had recovered.”^[40]

Mahāsāṃghika:—“The Buddha peregrinated in Kosala. At that time the Venerable Śāriputra had wind agitated [in the body]. The monks fully informed the Buddha on this matter. The Buddha asked a monk: ‘What medicine is suitable and needed?’ [The monk] replied: ‘The Exalted One, [it is] yellow myrobalan.’ The Buddha said: ‘From today [onwards], [I] allow a sick monk to use yellow myrobalan.’”^[41]

“[Regarding] sour gruel: The Buddha peregrinated in Kosala. At that time the Venerable Śāriputra had agitation of wind. The monks fully informed the Exalted One on this matter. The Buddha said: ‘What medicine should be needed for treating [the illness]?’ [A monk] replied: ‘The Exalted One, sour gruel is needed.’ The Buddha said: ‘[I] allow the consumption [of it].’... The Buddha told the monks: ‘The way of making sour gruel is: Take the barley grains, lightly pound them, [and] remove the awns, dust, and soil. Do not cause the grains to break. Rinse [them] seven times with water, [and then] place them in a clean container. When laying the [container holding] the sour gruel, do not put it at the eastern nor at the northern [sides of the room]; it should be put at the southern side [or] the western side [of the room] with windows opened. Do not let the foul smell come into [the room]. Do not place it in the stupa yard. Do not place it at an open area. It should be placed at a concealed place. Put in equal amounts of the medicines for one’s life–yellow myrobalan, beleric myrobalan, emblic myrobalan, black pepper, long pepper and such as these examples–into the container [with sour gruel]. Cover [the container with sour gruel] with a clean woollen cloth, fasten [the cloth] with a rope, ^[42] [and then] use a piece of wood to cover [it]. When accepting the sour gruel–depending on the amount of sour gruel–dissolve it in [the same amount of] water, and then drink it. If the sour gruel is drunk without dissolving [it] in water, there is an offence of transgression of disciplinary rule. If the barley grains are not broken, [the sour gruel] can be drunk in proper and improper times. If the barley grains are broken, it can be drunk in proper time but not in improper time.’ This is known as the teaching on sour gruel.”^[43]

We can see from the above records that wind disease would probably have been a common illness. It seems to affect certain parts of the body or the whole body. There were diverse treatments for this illness, as shown in the above accounts.

These remedies are summarised into the following categories:

1. sour gruel and relating fluids, such as salted sour gruel, fluid from barley soaked in oil, and fluid from barley soaked in molasses;
2. gruel cooked with some medicines, which are often stated as the three pungent substances;
3. animal fats;
4. oil decocted with medicines, even with liquor (as long as it does not have the colour, taste and smell of liquor);
5. yellow myrobalan;
6. wind-removing medicines, such as steamed rice-grains, steamed brewers’ grains, barley, herbs for treating wind disease, bran, or boiled urine;
7. lotus root;
8. salts, such as red salt, white salt, or various salts; as well as their use with sour gruel;
9. special therapies such as: various forms of perspiration therapy;warm bath; anointing the body with substances including ghee, oil, honey, mixture of things (e.g. urine with oil, ash, and bitter liquor); bloodletting;and smoke therapy.

Apart from the information provided in the above sources, the commentary of the Theravāda Vinaya, the Samantapāsādikā, has furnished us with extra explanations on some of the remedies.

Salted sour gruel is elaborated as:

“Salted sour gruel by name is a medicine which is prepared with all flavours. Those [who are] making that surely, having put in decoctions of yellow myrobalan, emblic myrobalan, and beleric myrobalan; all grains; all prepared grains; also boiled rice of seven grains; the plantain fruit and so on; all fruits; the sprouts of cane, screw pine, date palm, and so on; all sprouts; pieces of fish flesh; various honey, molasses, and rock-salts;medicines of pungent [taste] and so on; having plastered the rim of a pot, place [it] aside [for] one or two or three years. Having that become ripe, it becomes the colour of black plum juice. Of [those foods] which are eaten as soft foods and of [those medicines treating] wind, cough, leprosy, jaundice, fistula, and so on, there is not a better drink of such quality [which is] a medicine [formed from] decaying of foods. Then this is for the monks in the afternoon. For the sick ones, it is indeed natural. For ones who are not sick, it is [consumed] by using as a drink [which is] mixed with water.”^[44]

The making of salted sour gruel, according to the Samantapāsādikā, is much more complex than that of other beverages described in other Vinayas.

The Samantapāsādikā also provides detailed annotations on various forms of perspiration therapy as follows:

“‘Perspiration with requisite materials’ is perspiration by [means of] different kinds of leaves and hemp. The meaning [of] ‘great perspiration’ is: after filling a pit of the size of a man with embers, covering [that] with soil and sand and so on, spreading various kinds of wind-removing leaves there, [and] laying [the sick person] with [his] body smeared with oil there, I [the Tathāgata] allow [him] to steam [his] body with rolling about. ‘Hemp water’ is the hot water with different leaves and hemp. Having repeatedly poured with those leaves and water, [one] should be steamed. ‘Bathroom’ is a bath cabinet. The meaning is: after filling a vessel or a trough with hot water [and after the person] entering there, I allow performing the perspiration therapy.”^[45]

Now, what is wind disease and what are the treatments for it? We now attempt to understand this illness and the remedies–mentioned in the above Buddhist accounts–with the help of Āyuvedic and modern medical knowledge. In Āyurveda, wind humour (vāta or vāyu) is regarded as the life force in the body. It has the qualities of “roughness, lightness, coldness, unstability, coarseness, and nonsliminess” (Caraka Saṃhitā Sūtrasthāna 12. 4). It sustains all organs and tissues in the body. It is responsible for all actions, both physical and mental, and coordinates all sense faculties. It pervades the whole body, but is divided into five (viz. prāṇa, udāna, samāna, apāna, and vyāna) according to their dominant locations and functions.^[46] By various factors, wind humour can be aggravated and cause diseases.

Wind humour can be aggravated by habitual usage of substances or drugs having identical qualities as this humour, as well as by undertaking of activities with the same effects as wind humour (Caraka Saṃhitā Sūtrasthāna 12. 5). Examples of aggravating factor include consumption of cold, light and non-unctuous food, excessive physical activities, inappropriate therapeutic measures, emotional disturbance, excessive fasting and emaciation, and so on (Caraka Saṃhitā Cikitsāsthāna 28. 15-19). Various physical and mental diseases are resulted, depending on the causative factors, location and function of the type of wind being affected, and the sites of manifestation of disease. Wind diseases can affect different parts of the body or the whole body. Severe ones may lead to instantaneous death (Caraka Saṃhitā Cikitsāsthāna 28. 12, 19, 24).

In Āyurveda, the main principle of treatments for wind diseases is to alleviate the qualities of wind humour and bring about the opposite qualities of unctuousness, heaviness, heat, softness, smoothness, and sliminess (Caraka Saṃhitā Sūtrasthāna 12. 7). General treatments often employed include consumption of oily foods such as ghee, oil, muscle fat and marrow; intake of meat broth, milk, wine, foods of sweet, sour and salty taste; consumption of drugs of hot potency; anointing the body with oil; massage of the body;perspiration measures; warm bath with oil, water, or medicinal decoction; use of substances for mild emesis and purgation; oily enema; unctuous smoking or sniffing; exposing to sunlight or fire; abiding in windless place; thick clothing; and so on (Caraka Saṃhitā Cikitsāsthāna 28. 104-106; Suśruta Saṃhitā Cikitsāsthāna 4. 21-26; Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya Saṃhitā Sūtrasthāna 13. 1-3). There are also specific treatments for aggravated wind humour at specific locations. For instance, aggravated wind humour in peripheral tissues and joints causes obstruction to blood channels and this is treated by bloodletting by means of horn, leech, needle, gourd, or surgical incision (Caraka Saṃhitā Cikitsāsthāna 28. 104; 29. 35-36). Hence, it can be noticed that the treatments mentioned in the Buddhist sources are in accordance with those utilised in Āyurveda.

How do we comprehend wind humour and wind diseases in terms of modern medical science? From the descriptions in Āyurvedic treatises, the main functions of wind humour highly suggest its relationship with the central and peripheral nervous system, which is responsible for controlling all motions, coordinating senses, regulating functions of organs (such as heart, lungs, bowels, etc.), and stimulating intellectual activities (Ninivaggi 2010, 50; Pole 2006, 24). Actually, modern Āyurvedic scholars have recognised this fact. They consider vāta “corresponds approximately to the body’s nervous system” (Godagama 2004, 29), “intimately related to the functioning of the nervous system” (Pole 2006, 112), and “the central and peripheral nervous system is under the control of Vata [sic]” (Ninivaggi 2010, 50). Thus, wind disease can affect movement, sensation, organ functions, and psychological activities. It would manifest as neurological disorders affecting motor and/or sensory activities, musculoskeletal problems, disturbances of normal organ functioning, and mental illnesses. Treatments for such diseases would depend on the diagnoses.^[47]

In brief, wind disease was one of the commonest illnesses mentioned in the Chapters on Medicine. There were a wide range of remedies being used. These treatments were in line with those employed in Āyurveda. By comparing with the functions described in Āyurveda, wind humour and disease should closely associate with the nervous system, affecting a wide range of motor and/or sensory, musculoskeletal, psychological, and organ functions.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

The annotation for “oil decoction” in the Samantapāsādikā (V. 1091) is: “to put in whatever medicine, indeed everything is permitted” (yaṃ kiñci bhesajjaṃ pakkhipituṃ sabbaṃ anuññātam eva hoti).

[2]:

The translation of the phrase “yathādhammo kāretabbo” is adopted from Anuruddha 2004, 734.

[3]:

The translation of the phrase “abbhañjanaṃ adhiṭṭhātuṃ” is adopted from Anuruddha 2004, 104.

[4]:

Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 204-205: “tena kho pana samayena āyasmato Pilindavacchassa vātābādho hoti. vejjā evaṃ āhaṃsu: telaṃ pacitabban ti. anujānāmi bhikkhave telapākan ti. tasmiṃ kho pana telapāke majjaṃ pakkhipitabbaṃ hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave telapāke majjaṃ pakkhipitun ti. tena kho pana samayena chabbaggiyā bhikkhū atipakkhittamajjāni telāni pacanti. tāni pivitvā majjanti. na bhikkhave atipakkhittamajjaṃ telaṃ pātabbaṃ. yo piveyya, yathādhammo kāretabbo. anujānāmi bhikkhave yasmiṃ telapāke majjassa na vaṇṇo na gandho na raso paññāyati, evarūpaṃ majjapakkhittaṃ telaṃ pātun ti. tena kho pana samayena bhikkhūnaṃ bahuṃ atipakkhittamajjaṃ telaṃ pakkaṃ hoti. atha kho bhikkhūnaṃ etad ahosi: kathaṃ nu kho atipakkhittamajje tele paṭipajjitabban ti. anujānāmi bhikkhave abbhañjanaṃ adhiṭṭhātun ti. tena kho pana samayena āyasmato Pilindavacchassa bahutaraṃ telaṃ pakkaṃ hoti, telabhājanaṃ na saṃvijjati. anujānāmi bhikkhave tīṇi tumbāni lohatumbaṃ kaṭṭhatumbaṃ phalatumban ti.”

[5]:

The Samantapāsādikā annotation for rheumatism in the limbs (aṅgavāta) is “wind in all limbs” (aṅgamaṅgesu vāto) (V. 1091).

[6]:

Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 205: “tena kho pana samayena āyasmato Pilindavacchassa aṅgavāto hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave sedakamman ti. na kkhamanīyo hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave sambhārasedan ti. na kkhamanīyo hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave mahāsedan ti. na kkhamanīiyo hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave bhaṅgodakan ti. na kkhamanīyo hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave udakakoṭṭhakan ti.”

[7]:

The translation of “pabbavāta” as arthritis is adopted from Anuruddha 2004, 592. The Samantapāsādikā explanation for this term is “wind strikes at joints repeatedly” (pabbe pabbe vāto vijjhati) (V. 1091).

[8]:

The Samantapāsādikā elaborates that it is “to release blood with a knife” (satthakena lohitaṃ mocetuṃ) (V. 10911092).

[9]:

Horner translates “visāṇena gahetuṃ” as “to cup with a horn,” based on Wise’s rendering that bad blood can be removed by cupping with a horn. See The Book of Discipline IV. 279n5. But the present writer translates this phrase as above, based on Anuruddha’s rendering (2004, 824) because we cannot be sure how the horn was used.

[10]:

Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 205: “tena kho pana samayena āyasmato Pilindavacchassa pabbavāto hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave lohitaṃ mocetun ti. na kkhamanīyo hoti. anujānāmi bhikkhave lohitaṃ mocetvā visāṇena gahetun ti.”

[11]:

The Samantapāsādikā (II. 478-479) has a detailed description of how to make salted sour gruel. The translation of this will be provided below.

[12]:

Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 210: “tena kho pana samayena aññatarassa bhikkhuno udaravātābādho hoti, so loṇasovīrakaṃ apāyi, tassa so udaravātābādho paṭippassambhi. bhagavato etam atthaṃ ārocesuṃ. anujānāmi bhikkhave gilānassa loṇasovīrakaṃ, agilānassa udakasambhinnaṃ pānaparibhogena paribhuñjitun ti.”

[13]:

Tekaṭula in Pāli is trikaṭu in Sanskrit, and it refers to the three spices of black pepper, long pepper, and dry ginger. See A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s.v. “trikaṭu.” The Samantapāsādikā (II. 391) has given explanations on the term “tekaṭulayāgu,” but only things such as sesame, rice-grains, and different grams are named, without mentioning any pungent substances.

[14]:

The translation of the phrase “anto vāsetvā anto sāmaṃ pacitvā bhagavato upanāmesi” is adapted from Anuruddha 2004, 572.

[15]:

Theravāda Vinaya Piṭaka I. 210: “atha kho bhagavā anupubbena cārikaṃ caramāno yena Rājagahaṃ tad avasari. tatra sudaṃ bhagavā Rājagahe viharati Veḷuvane Kalandakanivāpe. tena kho pana samayena bhagavato udaravātābādho hoti. atha kho āyasmā Ānando pubbe pi bhagavato udaravātābādho tekaṭulāya yāguyā phāsu hotīti sāmaṃ tilam pi taṇḍulam pi muggam pi paññāpetvā anto vāsetvā anto sāmaṃ pacitvā bhagavato upanāmesi pivatu bhagavā tekaṭulayāgun ti.”

[16]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 866c28-867a12: “爾時佛在舍衛國，時有比丘患風，醫教服酢麥汁。佛言：「聽服。」不知云何作？佛言：「聽淨人淨洗器，漬麥乃至爛，漉取汁飲。若麥汁臭，應覆。若汁滓俱出，聽作漉器。」不知云何作器？佛言：「聽若銅、若木、若竹作漉器。如漉水筒作、若三角、若大、若小。若麥中燥，令淨人更益水。」時病比丘在多人前飲麥漿，餘比丘見皆共惡穢之，佛言：「不應在多人前，應在屏處飲。」時一切僧皆須，佛言：「應一切共飲。」時有諸比丘，各各別用器飲，眾器皆臭，佛言：「不應各別器飲，應共傳用一器飲。」時有比丘飲已不洗器與餘比丘，佛言：「不應爾，應洗器已與餘比丘。」”

[17]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 867b29: “爾時舍利弗患風，醫教食藕根。”

[18]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 869c14-c18: “爾時舍利弗患風，醫教服五種脂：羆脂、魚脂、驢脂、猪脂、失守摩羅

脂。白佛，佛言：「聽服。時受時漉時煮，如油法服。非時受、非時漉、非時煮，不應服；若服，如法治。」”

[19]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 870b25-26: “爾時比丘患風須藥，醫教漬麥汁。佛言：「聽服。」須油漬麥汁、須頗尼漬麥汁。佛言：「聽服。」”

[20]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 871a20-21: “爾時世尊患風，醫教和三種藥”. From the context of this piece of information, it should correspond to the case of the Buddha’s abdominal wind disease with the use of the rice-gruel containing three pungent substances as the remedy in the Theravāda Bhesajjakkhandhaka. So “three kinds of medicine” here seem to refer to the three pungent substances (i.e. the three spices).

[21]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 874b14-16: “時比丘患風，醫教作除風藥，是中除風藥者，烝稻穀、烝酒糟、若大麥，若諸治風草、若麩糠、若煮小便。白佛，佛言：「聽。」”

[22]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1428. 877a12-19: “爾時有比丘患風，醫教用煙，佛言：「聽用煙。」時須煙筒，佛言：「聽作。」彼以寶作，佛言：「不應用寶作筒。應用骨、若牙、若角、若鐵、若銅、若白鑞、若鉛錫、若木作。若患火燒煙出處，聽安鐵。」若患筒零落，佛言：「聽作囊盛。」手持不堅，佛言：「應作帶繫著肩上。」彼須丸藥，佛言：「聽作。」手持不堅，「應盛著薰筒囊中。」”

[23]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 53b11-13: “爾時舍利弗得風病，目連往問：「汝在家時，曾有此病不？」答云：

「有！」「何方治差？」答言：「食藕！」” This passage is not within the Mahīśāsaka

Bhaiṣajyadharmaka.

[24]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 147b17-19: “有一比丘得風病應服油，諸比丘為乞不得，而得油麻。以是白佛，佛言：

「應使淨人作油，作無食氣，受七日服。」”

[25]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 147b24-28: “有諸比丘得風病應服牛、驢、駱駝、鱣脂。諸比丘為乞不得，而得四種肥肉。以是白佛，佛言：「應使淨人煮，接取膏更煎。若時煮、時煎、時漉、非時受，不得經宿服；若時煮、時煎、時漉、時受，得七日服。」”

[26]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 147c2-3: “有比丘風病應取汗，以是白佛，佛言：「聽取。」”

[27]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 147c3-4: “有比丘風病應服赤白諸鹽，以是白佛，佛言：「聽服。」”

[28]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 147c4-6: “有比丘風病應合和小便、油、灰、苦酒，用摩身體。以是白佛，佛言：「聽合和摩之。」”

[29]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. 148a28-29: “佛在毘舍離。爾時世尊患風，阿難自煮藥粥上佛。” This passage is not within the Mahīśāsaka Bhaiṣajyadharmaka.

[30]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1435. 185b22-28: “佛在舍衛國。時長老舍利弗病風冷，藥師言：「應服蘇提羅漿。」舍利弗言：「佛未聽我服蘇提羅漿。」諸比丘以是事白佛，佛言：「從今聽服蘇提羅漿。」長老優波離問佛：「用何等物作蘇提羅漿？」佛言：「以大麥去麁皮，不破少煮，著一器中湯浸令酢。晝受晝服、夜受夜服，不應過時分服。」” 蘇提羅漿 should be a corruption of 蘇毗羅漿 (sauvīraka), with the latter term found elsewhere in this Vinaya.

[31]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1435. 187a4-7: “佛在舍衛國。佛身中冷氣起，藥師言：「應服三辛粥。」佛告阿難：「辦三辛粥。」阿難受勅，即入舍衛城，乞胡麻、粳米、摩沙豆、小豆，合煮和三辛以粥上佛。”

[32]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1435. 277a24-26: “佛在舍衛國。爾時長老舍利弗風病，藥師教言：「以煖水洗。」答言：「佛未聽煖水洗。」是事白佛，佛言：「聽煖水洗。」” This passage is not within the

Sarvāstivāda Bhaiṣajyadharmaka.

[33]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1435. 278a17-23: “佛在舍衛國。時世尊患風脊痛，時藥師教言：「酥油塗身，塗身已，槽盛煖水入中臥。」佛語阿難：「煖水著槽中持來。」阿難受教，槽盛煖水來。時佛酥油塗身入中臥，臥已病得除愈。佛以是事集比丘僧，語諸比丘：「從今聽若有風病，以酥油塗

身煖水中臥。」” This passage is not within the Sarvāstivāda Bhaiṣajyadharmaka. A similar account is found in the Chinese version of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Bhaiṣajyavastu.

[34]:

Gilgit Manuscripts III. 1.v: “śrāvastyāṃ nidānam | athānyatamasya bhikṣorvāyvābādhikaṃ glānyamutpannam | sa vaidyasakāśamupasaṃkrāntaḥ (upasaṃkramya kathayati | vāyvābādhikaṃ) glānyamutpannaṃ bhaiṣajyaṃ byapadiśeti | sa kathayati | ārya vasāṃ sevasva svāsthyaṃ te bhaviṣyatīti | bhikṣurāha | bhadramukha kimahaṃ puruṣādaḥ sa kathayati | bhikṣo | idaṃ te bhaiṣajyaṃ na śakyamanyathā svasthena bhavitumiti | etatprakaraṇaṃ bhikṣavo bhagavata ārocayanti| bhagavanāha | yadi vaidyaḥ kathayati | idaṃ te bhikṣorbhaiṣajyaṃ na śakyamanyathā svasthena bhavitumiti sevitavyā vaseti | bhikṣavo na jānate | tairvaidyaḥ pṛṣṭaḥ | sa kathayati ārya yuṣmākameva śāstā sarvajñastameva gatvā pṛccheti | etat prakaraṇaṃ bhikṣavo bhagavata ārocayanti | bhagavānāha | pañca vasāḥ prasevitavyāḥ | katamāḥ pañca | matsyavasā śuśukāvasā śuśumāravasā rikṣavasā sūkaravasā ca | itīmāḥ pañca vasāḥ |... | kāle pakvāḥ kāle pariśrutāḥ kāle pratigrāhitāḥ kāle'dhiṣṭhitāstailaparibhogena saptāhaṃ paribhoktavyā iti |” After this passage, there follows further teaching on how to handle the leftover fat: it should be given to another monk who has a need, or be kept in the sick quarter for use by another in need.

[35]:

Gilgit Manuscripts III. 1.xiii: “śrāvastyāṃ nidānam | āyuṣmataḥ śāriputrasya vāyvābādhikaṃ glānyamutpannam | āyuṣmānmahāmaudgalyāyanaḥ saṃlakṣayati | bahuśo mayā āyuṣmataḥ (śāriputrasya paricaryā) kṛtā na tu kadācidvaidyaḥ pṛṣṭaḥ | yattvahamidānīṃ vaidyaṃ pṛccheyam | sa vaidyasakāśamupasaṃkrāntaḥ | bhadramukha āyuṣmataḥ śāriputrasyedaṃ cedaṃ ca glānyamutpannaṃ tasyānulomikabhaiṣajyamupadiśeti | sa kathayati | ārya (lavaṇaṃ sauvīrakaṃ bhaiṣajyaṃ) bhaviṣyatīti |” It is stated in a footnote in the Gilgit Manuscripts that lavaṇaṃ sauvīrakaṃ is salted sour barley gruel (III. 1.xiii n2).

[36]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1448. 1c12-28: “緣在室羅伐城。有一苾芻身患風疾，往醫人處，問曰：「賢首！我患風疾，為我處方。」時彼醫人白言：「聖者！宜可服有情脂，病當除差。」苾芻報曰：「賢首！我今豈合食此脂耶？」醫人報曰：「唯有斯藥，餘不能差。」時諸苾芻以此因緣具白世尊，佛言：「苾芻有病，若醫人說唯此是藥、餘不能差者，應當服脂。」時諸苾芻不知服何等脂？還問醫人，醫人報曰：「汝師既是一切智人，可往諮問，自當知之。」時諸苾芻即往 問佛，佛言：「有五種脂：一者魚脂，二者江豚脂，三者鮫魚脂，四者熊脂，五者猪 脂。...時煮、時漉、時受、時守持，應服，如服油法，七日服，過七日不應服。」” The teaching regarding the leftover fat-medicine is the same as that in the Sanskrit version. See footnote 54 above.

[37]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1448. 3b10-15: “緣在室羅筏城。具壽舍利子身嬰風病，具壽大目揵連見其有疾，作如是念：「我曾頻與舍利子看病，不問醫人，今應宜問。」即往醫處問言：「賢首！具壽舍利子患如是如是病，可為處方。」醫人報曰：「聖者！看其患狀，宜服鹽醋，當得除差。」”

[38]:

荻苗國 is said to be Kāśī in one reference. See Kaneko 2010.

[39]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1448. 7a8-14: “爾時世尊在荻苗國...爾時世尊... 風病發動。時具壽阿難陀作如是念：「我常供養世尊，未曾問於醫人。今患風疾，往問醫人。」至已問曰：「賢首！世尊今患風疾，為我處方。」醫人報曰：「聖者！宜用酥煎三種澁藥，服即除愈。」”

[40]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1448. 73a29-b12: “...乃往古昔無量劫時...有佛出世，號曰釋迦牟尼...爾時彼佛忽有風患...須酥油蜜漿。...以酥蜜等遍塗佛身，溫水沐浴，持沙糖水奉上世尊，為療病故，即得痊愈。”

[41]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1425. 457b4-7: “佛俱薩羅國遊行，爾時尊者舍利弗風動，諸比丘以是因緣具白世尊。佛問比丘：「宜須何藥？」答言：「世尊！呵梨勒。」佛言：「從今日聽病比丘服呵梨勒。」”

[42]:

以繩鷄足繫 is difficult to understand and translate. Probably it means to use a rope to fasten the cloth at the mouth of the container like putting a rope-loop to tie at a chicken leg.

[43]:

Taishō Tripiṭaka 1425. 464b14-c2: “蘇毘羅者，佛憍薩羅國遊行，爾時尊者舍利弗風患動，諸比丘以是因緣具白世尊。佛言：「當須何藥治？」答言：「世尊！須蘇毘羅漿。」佛言：「聽服。」... 佛告諸比丘：「作蘇毘羅漿法者，取[麩-夫+廣]麥輕擣，却芒塵土，勿令頭破，以水七遍淨淘置淨器中。臥蘇毘羅漿時，不得著東、不得著北，應著南邊、西邊開通風道，勿使臭氣來入，不得安著塔院中、不得著顯現處，應著屏處，以呵梨勒、鞞醯勒、阿摩勒、胡椒、蓽茇如是比盡壽藥等置中，以淨[疊*毛]覆之，以繩鷄足繫，以木蓋上。受蘇毘羅漿時，隨漿多少以水中解然後飲。若不與水解飲，越毘尼罪。若麥頭不破，時、非時得飲。若麥頭破，時得飲、非時不得飲。」是名蘇毘羅漿法。”

[44]:

Samantapāsādikā II. 478-479: “loṇasovīrakaṃ nāma sabbarasābhisaṅkhaṭaṃ ekaṃ bhesajjaṃ. taṃ kira karontā harītakāmalakavibhītakakasāve sabbadhaññāni sabbaapaṇṇāni sattannam pi dhaññānaṃ odanaṃ kadaliphalādīni sabbaphalāni vettaketakakhajjūrikaḷīrādayo sabbakaḷīre macchamaṃsakhaṇḍāni anekāni ca madhuphāṇitasindhavaloṇāni kaṭukādīni bhesajjāni pakkhipitvā kumbhimukhaṃ limpitvā ekaṃ vā dve vā tīṇi vā saṃvaccharāni ṭhapenti, taṃ paripaccitvā jamburasavaṇṇaṃ hoti, vātakāsakuṭṭhapaṇḍubhagandarādīnaṃ siniddhabhojana bhuttānañ ca uttaraṃ pānaṃ bhattajiraṇakabhesajjaṃ tādisaṃ n’ atthi, taṃ pan’ etaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ pacchābhattam pi vaṭṭati, gilānānaṃ pākatikam eva, agilānānaṃ pana udakasambhinnaṃ pānaparibhogenā’ti.”

[45]:

Samantapāsādikā V. 1091: “sambhārasedan ti nānāvidhapaṇṇabhaṅgasedaṃ. mahāsedan ti porisappamāṇaṃ āvāṭaṃ aṅgārānaṃ pūretvā paṃsuvālikādīhi pidahitvā tattha nānāvidhāni vātaharaṇapaṇṇāni santharitvā telamakkhitena gattena tattha nipajjitvā samparivattanena sarīraṃ sedetuṃ anujānāmī’ti attho. bhaṅgodakan ti nānāpaṇṇabhaṅgehi kuṭṭhitaṃ udakaṃ. tehi paṇṇehi ca udakena ca siñcitvā siñcitvā sedetabbo. udakoṭṭhakan ti udakakoṭṭhakaṃ. pāṭiṃ vā doṇiṃ vā uṇhodakassa pūretvā tattha pavisitvā sedakammakaraṇaṃ anujānāmī’ti attho.”

[46]:

The above concise descriptions about wind humour are extracted from Caraka Saṃhitā Sūtrasthāna 12. 4, 8; Cikitsāsthāna 28. 3. For detailed information on the five kinds of wind humour, see Caraka Saṃhitā Cikitsāsthāna 28. 5-11.

[47]:

Thus, wind disease can mean numerous diseases in modern medicine, and it is impossible to discuss them and their treatments here. Interested readers may consult the corresponding chapters in modern medical texts for more biomedical information, e.g. in Kumar and Clark’s Clinical

Medicine, 8th ed, Chapter 22 (Neurological Disease), Chapter 21 (Special Senses), Chatper 23 (Psychological Medicine), Chapter 11 (Rheumatology and Bone Disease), Chapter 14 (Cardiovascular Disease), Chapter 15 (Respiratory Disease), Chapter 6 (Gastrointestinal Disease), and so on.