History of Indian Medicine (a): Pre-Vedic Phase

The first known mature civilisation of ancient India is the Indus Valley Civilisation, which was situated around the Indus River (in present-day Pakistan). According to archaeological evidence, it appeared at about 3000 Before Common Era and was at first a Bronze Age civilisation. It became highly developed, and is believed to have flourished from approximately 2500 to 1500 Before Common Era. Two urbanised cities have been excavated at the modern places of Harappā and Mohenja Dāro (Warder 2000, 15). This civilisation thus is also known as the Harappā Culture. With a high level of civilisation, it is believed that certain types of medicine and healing people would have existed (Basham 1976, 18; Wujastyk 1993, 755). Furthermore, material remains of this civilisation found in Mesopotamia suggests that there was already communication between the Indus Valley civilisation and that of Mesopotamia. Exchange of knowledge, including medical ideas and practices, may have happened (Filliozat 1964, 34; Mazars 2006, 1-2). But, owing to the fact that the remaining script of this culture is undecipherable, no medical lore can be known from this civilisation (Wujastyk 1993, 756). Then, is there anything about medicine that we know for this civilisation?

The answer is yes. There are still some remains left to us showing medical elements. To start with, there is some evidence pointing to the presence of personal and public hygiene in this ancient culture. From the excavated ruins of the major cities, large public water tanks or baths have been found; many houses had a separate bathroom with draining to a sewage system under streets.^[1] These public and private baths can be, as scholars have suggested, for secular and/or religious purposes of cleansing.^[2] Such evidence suggests that public and personal aspects of hygiene and health had already been emphasised during this time in India.

Another important finding is some possible medicinal substances–such as horns of sambar (a type of deer in southern Asia), bitumen, and bones of cuttlefish–which were found collected in the ruins of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. These substances are known in the Āyurvedic pharmacopoeia, and hence they could have served as remedies in this ancient culture as well (Filliozat 1964, 34; Mazars 2006, 2).

Surgical techniques might also have been present. Skeletal skulls showing signs of trepanation were discovered at Harappā. This could have been performed for surgical or religious purposes at the time of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Surgical treatment might have already been developed. However, trepanation is not mentioned in ancient Indian medical texts. Thus, it is not yet conclusive to support the employment of surgical treatment in this period (Zysk 1991, 13; 1996, 3-4).^[3]

Another piece of evidence is the possible worship of healing deities or persons. From the excavated remains, some images and statues were found. These objects suggest the likely worship of the deities in various things in this ancient culture. For instance, images of the pīpal tree goddess and the pīpal leaf have been noticed. Since the worship of medicinal plant deities is known in the Vedic period, and that this plant, the pīpal tree, is present in the materia medica of later Indian medicine, it suggests that–probably at the time of this ancient culture–medicinal plants had been discovered for their healing efficacy and hence the worship of them (Basham 2004, 24; Wujastyk 1993, 756; Zysk 1996, 3). In addition, images of Indus ascetics on some seals found in Harappā and Mohenjo Dāro might represent shamans who could have acted as healers, like the shamans in many ancient cultures. If this is correct, these ascetic-shamans could have performed magical rituals (such as chanting, dancing, use of special herbs and amulets, exorcisms, etc.) as healing activities (Zysk 1991, 12-13).

The Indus Valley Civilisation gradually declined and eventually collapsed in the mid-second millennium Before Common Era.^[4] No medical knowledge of this civilisation has been left to us. However, as depicted above, this civilisation was a highly developed one. There is evidence pointing to its practice of public and personal health. Certain forms of medicine and healers could have existed. Although the medical lore of this civilisation is completely unknown, Basham (1976, 18) wisely suggests: “… as in many other features of Indian life, the Harappā Culture contained the seeds of much that was characteristic of later Indian medicine.”

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Many scholars have stated such evidence of hygiene in their works. See, for example, Filliozat 1964, 32; Mazars 2006, 2; Wujastyk 1993, 756; Zysk 1991, 12;1996, 2.

[2]:

Filliozat (1964, 33) supported only the hygienic purpose of bathing while Wujastyk (1993, 756) and Zysk (1991, 12) mentioned the religious purpose of cleansing as well.

[3]:

Although there is no mention of trepanation in ancient Indian medical texts, there is information in Buddhist literature which may suggest the possible presence of this procedure in ancient India. In the healing records of Jīvaka (the Buddha’s physician) as found in the Vinayas of the Theravāda, the Dharmaguptaka and the Mūlasarvāstivāda schools, there is a case of Jīvaka performing craniotomy (i.e. opening of the skull) to remove worm(s) from his patient’s head even though the details in the three Vinayas are not the same.

[4]:

The exact causes for this decline and collapse are not fully known, but scholars have proposed that it could be due to environmental changes, climatic changes, economical downfall, and invasions by the Āryans. See Wujastyk 1993, 756; Zysk 1996, 4.