Chapter 10 - Geographical knowledge (derived from Bhasa’s plays)

In this chapter we have grouped in an alphabetical order under different headings, such as countries, towns, mountains and rivers, all the references showing geographical knowledge of the period that we could come across in the works of Bhasa. In the notes appended to every place name, not only have the identifications of the various places been given, but references to them in the Vedic literature, the epics and the Buddhist works have also been stated as well as some important and interesting historical facts concerning some of these places, bringing the story down to the period of our plays. No references have been made to the subsequent epochs. Among the ancient works, it is to be noted that Panini also supplies us with exact and accurate particulars as to the geographical knowledge of his period. We have liberally drawn on the writing of Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar, Sir A. Cunningham, Mr. Nandolal Dey, Dr. B. C. Law, Dr. S. N. Majumdar Sastri, Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhury and others, and have consulted various other sources.* Our indebtedness has been indicated in the foot-notes at suitable places. The following is the list of the countries, towns, mountains and rivers mentioned by Bhasa: COUNTRIES. Anga, Avanti, Uttarakuru, Kamboja, Kasi, 1 of. Kunte, Vicissitudes, pp. 371-376. 2 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , 1918: Cunningham, Anc. Geography; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India Law; Geog. of Early Buddhism; Majumdar Sastri, Cunningham's Anc. Geog.; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. of Anc. India; also, Rhys Davids, Buddhist India; Vaidya, Upasamhara; etc.

1323 Kuntibhoja, Kuru, Kurujangala, Kuru, Kurujangala, Kosala, Gandhara, Janasthana, Daksinapatha, Magadha, Matsya,, Madra, Mithila, Lanka, Vanga, Vatsa, Videha, Surasena, Saurastra, and Sauvira. TOWNS. Ayodhya, Avanti, Kampilya, Kiskindha, Kausambi, Pataliputra,, Mathura, Rajagrha, Lanka, Viratanagara, Vairantya, Srngiverapura and Hastinapura. MOUNTAINS. Krauncaparvata, Trikuta, Mandara, Malayagiri, Mahendra, Meru, Vindhya, Suvela and Himalaya. RIVERS. Ganga, Narmada and Yamuna. MINOR PLACES. Udyamaka, Yupagrama, Nagavana, Madayantika, Venuvana, Lavanaka, etc. Anga. Anga was included in the sixteen mahajanapadas in ancient India both in the Buddhist and Jain texts. The earliest reference to Anga is found in the Atharvaveda³ The country lies to the East of Magadha separated by river Campa (modern Candan). At one time it included Magadha and extended its limits to the shores of the Bay of Bengal. Anga corresponds to the modern districts of Monghyr and Bhagalpore. Sir George Birdwood, however, includes, in addition, the districts of Birbhum and Murshidabad. The Mahabharata mentions the Anga and Vanga as forming one kingdom." The country was so named because Madana was burnt here, and hence Madana is known as Ananga." It was the kingdom of Romapada of the Ramayana and Karna of the Mahabharata. In the epic period, the Aryans of Bengal (Anga Vanga and Kalinga) were looked as of mixed origin and a Brahmana was considered to lose his status and render 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , pp. 49-73; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 7; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism , pp. 6-8; Ray Chaudhury. Political History of Ancient India , 2 nd Edn., pp. 67-69, 3 rd Edn., pp. 75-78. 2 Anguttara, Nikaya, I. 4; Vinaya Texts, II. 146; Bhagavati Sutra. 3 AV, V. 22, 14. 4 Sabhaparva, 44, 9 Ramayana. I. 28, 13, 14.

324 himself liable to be called a patita by staying in this region. So, probably the province was supposed to be outside the Bharatakhanda at the time of the Mahabharata. Before Buddha's time, Anga Anga was a powerful kingdom. Anga and Magadha were constantly at war, and in Buddha's time the destruction of the Anga kingdom was finally effected by Seniya Bimbisara who killed Brahmadatta, the king of Anga, annexed the country and made Campa, the capital of Anga kingdom his headquarters, where he stayed as viceroy till his father's death.' The fact that in later Buddhist literature we find Anga mentioned jointly with Magadha in Dvandva compound (Anga-Magadha) shows that it gradually lost its importance and individuality. Anga was a prosperous country containing many merchants. who had trade relations with a number of countries, and caravans full of merchandise used to pass between Anga and Sindhu-Sauvira. Its capital was Campa which stood on the Ganges and river Campa (modern Candan) at a distance of sixty yojanas from Mithila. It was one of the six great cities in ancient India, the other five being Benares, Kausambi, Rajagrha, Saketa Saketa and Sravasti. Cunningham has identified ancient Campa with two villages, Campanagara and Campapura, near Bhagalpore. Avanti. Avanti which has been mentioned by Panini (IV. 1. 176) was also one of the sixteen political divisions of India mentioned by Buddhist writers. The name applies to the country as well as to its capital, which is also known as Ujjayini. The country roughly corresponds to modern Malwa, Nimar and the adjoining parts of the Central Provinces. It was divided into two parts, the Northern, having its capital at Ujjain, and the Southern, with its capital at Mahissati or Mahismati, which is usually identified with Mandhata on the Narmada. The identification is doubtful according to 5 1 cf. Vaidya, Upasamhara, p. 372; Mahabharata, I. 104. 2 cf. Pol. Hist. Anc. India; 3 rd Edn., p. Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn., p. 68. 4 Bhandarkar, Carm. 78, 36 Lect. pp. 53, 54, 57, 64-65; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 13; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism pp. 22-23 Ray Chaudhury. Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn., p. 92, 3 rd Edn. pp. 102-103. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , p. 54, also under Mahissati in the Index. Law, Geography of Early Buddhism p. 22. 5

0325 Dr. Ray Chaudhury.' The foundation of Mahismati, Avanti, and Vidarbha has been attributed to the scions of the Yadu family in the Puranas. The famous king Vikramaditya, the hero of a number of legends, is said to have ruled over Avanti. At the time of the Pandavas, Vinda and Anuvinda, two brothers ruled this country which extended to the banks of the Narmada towards the South and to the banks of the Mahanadi towards the West. were Avanti was one of the four kingdoms when Buddha lived and preached, the other three being Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa. King Canda Pradyota of Avanti, Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru of Magadha, Pasenadi and his son Vidudabha of Kosala, and Udayana of Vatsa contemporaries of Buddha. Canda Pradyota (called Pradyota Mahasena by Bhasa) was, as we know, the father of Vasavadatta, Gopalaka and Anupalaka (Pratijna, II. 13.) and the father-in-law of Udayana Vatsaraja of Kausambi. The terror of the intended invasion of Magadha by Pradyota was the cause of the fortification of Rajagrha by Ajatasatru. After Pradyota's death his elder son Gopala abdicated in favour of his brother Palaka; but the latter who, as we know from the Mrcchakatika, was a tyrant was ousted by his nephew Aryaka, son of Gopala, who occupied the throne. The Pradyota dynasty of Avanti was humbled by Sisunaga and Avanti formed an integral part of the Magadhan Empire in the fourth century B. C. and was an important centre of Buddhism. Called Avanti at least till the second century A. D., the country came to be known as Malava since the seventh or eighth century A. D. 2 A short note on Ujjayini, the capital of Avanti, appears later on in this chapter. Uttarakuru. Uttarakuru was probably the Kuru country mentioned in the Rgveda. According to Dey, the Uttarakuru roughly corresponds to the northern portion of Garhwal and Hunadesa on the slopes of the Himalayas. Originally it included countries beyond the Himalayas. Ptolemy refers to it as Ottorakorra, and 1 Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 3 rd. Edn., p. 102, 2 cf. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 57, 64-65; Pradhan, Chronology, pp. 231-287. 3 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 28. 4 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , pp. 213-214; Sarup, Vision, p. 123.

326 2 Lassen places it to the east of Kashgar. The Aitareya Brahmana speaks of the Uttarakuru as situated in the neighbourhood of the Uttaramadras and states that they had a republican form of government.' The Ramayana would include the eastern Turkistan in the Uttarakuru and the Mahabharata would include Tibet. At the time of the Mahabharata it was also known as Harivarsa. In the period of the Brahmanas and the epics the country occupied a position of great eminence. Its priests were looked on as the most learned, its sacrifices regarded as most perfect, its speech the correct one, its kings the paragons of virtue and duty-in fact, it was an ideal place for human beings. The marriage laws of the Uttarakurus were most lax. From very early times, a mythical character was attached to the country, and its inhabitants and their luxurious mode of living became proverbial. Their life to others was of perfect joy and happiness and was regarded as a life in heaven. Pali literature alludes to the country as a mythical region. Kashmir or Tibet may be taken to have represented the Uttarakurus of the ancient days. The capital of the Uttarakuru is not yet known.³ Kamboja. Kamboja mentioned by Panini (IV. I. 175) was one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It corresponds, according to Dey, to the northern part of Afghanistan, while Dr. Stein takes the eastern part of Afghanistan to represent Kamboja. It is constantly associated with Gandhara and hence Ray Chaudhury rightly locates it near Gandhara. One view associates the Kambojas with a north Himalayan people, while another associates them with the Tibetans." From ancient times the country is celebrated for horses and Bhasa also refers to this feature of the country. Dr. Rhys Davids states the capital of this country to be Dvaraka. No mention is made in the Vedic texts of any king of Kamboja, but a teacher named Kamboja Aupamanyava, probably connected with this territory is referred to in the Vamsa 9 1 Ait. Bra. VIII. 14. 2 Ramayana. V. 43; Mahabharata, VI, 7. 3 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , p. 52. 4 Cunningham, Anc. Geog. p. 688; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 87; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism pp. 50-51; Ray Chaudhury, (Political History of Ancient India 2 nd Edn. p. 94 sq. 5 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 87. 6 Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn. p. 94, 7 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 54-55. 8 cf. Karna, St. 13, 19. 9 Buddhist India, p. 28.

327 Brahmana. It appears from the Buddhist accounts that the caste system and the Asramadharma had not got a stronghold in Kamboja in Buddhist period. The capital of Kamboja is not yet known. Kasi. Kasi was included in the mahajanapadas by both the Buddhist and Jain writers. Though applied to the country and its capital (known as Baranasi) it properly represents the country which was three hundred leagues in extent. I babversion of The earliest reference to Kasi as a tribe is found in the Paippalada recension of the Atharvaveda. Kasi was a great political power before Buddha's time and probably played a prominent part in the the Videhan monarchy. In In the Brahmana period, Dhrtarastra, a king of Kasi, attempted to perform the Asvamedha sacrifice, bur was defeated by Satrajita. Satanika who took away his sacrificial horse, and consequently the Kasis gave up the kindling of the sacred fire down to the period of the Satapatha Brahmana. The Mahabharata speaks of Pratardana, a king of Kasi, to have crushed the power of Vitahavyas or Haihayas. The Jatakas and the Mahavagga refer to the annexation of the Kosala kingdom by the Brahmadattas of Kasi. Fierce battles were constantly waged between Kasi and Kosala in which sometimes Kasi won and sometimes the Kosalas. At the time of Buddha, the Kasi kingdom was annexed to the kingdom of Kosala. The term Kasi-Kosala" current with regard to the country, the country, like the compound AngaMagadha" referred to earlier, speaks of the loss of independence of Kasi. Prasenajit of Kosala and Ajatasatru of Magadha engaged in fierce battle for the possession of Kasi, in which Ajatasatru won in the end incorporating Kasi into the Magadha kingdom. 66 66 Baranasi (modern Benares) the capital of the state, the most important city in ancient India, was 1 Political History of Ancient India , 1 st Edn. p. 77. 2 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 499; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 95; Law, Geog. Early Buddhism, pp. 3-4; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd. Edn. pp. 44-46. 3 cf. Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India , 1 st Edn., p. 46. 4 Sat Bra. XIII, 54-4-19. Also Ait. Bra. 5 Mahabharata, XIII. 30. Kosambi Ja, (No. 428); Kunala Ja (No. 536) Mahavagga, SBE, Vol. XIII. pp. 294-299. Dr. Bhandarkar (Carmichael Lectures , p. 56) has proved that Brahmadatta was the name of a family and not of any particular king.

2 328 twelve yojanas in extent.' The city was so named as it was situated at the confluence of the rivers Barna and Asi. Formerly it was situated at the junction of the Ganges and the Gomti. Princep states that Benares was founded by Kasa or Kasiraja, a descendant of Pururavas, king of Pratisthana. In the reign of Divodasa, a scion of Kasiraja, Buddhism superseded Saivism which in its turn superseded the former. In the Buddhist world Benares was a place of pilgrimage. The great Buddha spent a great part of his life at Benares. The city was a great centre of trade and industry. Dr. Bhandarkar enumerates Surundhana, Sudassana, Brahmavaddhana, Pupphavati, Ramma city and Molini as the alternative names of Baranasi.³ Kuntibhoja. Kuntibhoja, according to Dey, was also called Bhoja and was an ancient town of Malava where Kunti was brought up. It was situated on the bank of a small river called Asvanadi or Asvarathanadi which falls into the river Cambal. From references in the Avimaraka it appears that the country of the Kuntibhojas has been alluded to. The country stood at the time of the Mahabharata, on the river Carmanvati and roughly corresponded to a region in the Gwalior State. There is at present a place in the State known as Kuntibhojapura and hence the identification appears to be correct according to Vaidya. The capital of the ancient country was Vairantya, about which a note appears later on. Kuru. The Kuru country, as already stated, is mentioned in the Rgveda. It is one of the sixteen mahajanapadas in the Buddhist works. The kingdom of Kuru extended, according to Majumdar Sastri, from the Saraswati to the Ganges and its southern boundary was Khandava." Roughly speaking, the Kuru kingdom corresponded to modern Thanesar, Delhi and the Upper Doab. The rivers Hiranvati, Kausiki Aruna, Apaya, Pastya, Sarasvati and Drsadvati flowed within the kingdom.* 1 Ja. VI, p. 160. 2 Benares Illustrated, Intr., p. 8. 3 Carmichael Lectures pp. 50-51. 4 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 109. 5 Upasamhara, p. 373. 6 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , p. 52, Cunningham Anc. Geog. pp. 701-702; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 74-110; Law, Geog. Early Buddhism, pp. 17-18; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist... Anc. India, 2 nd. Edn. pp. 11, 12, 22, 84. 7 Cunningham's Anc. Geog. p. 701.. 8 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India 2 nd Edn., p. 12.

329 It was divided into three parts, Kuruksetra, the Kurus and Kurujangala (which will be dealt with in the next note). Kuruksetra corresponds to the Thanesar district which formerly included Sonpat, Panipat, Amin and Karnal, and was situated between the river Sarasvati on the north and Drsadvati on the south. It was at Amin (contraction of Abhimanyuksetra according to Cunningham) five miles south of Thanesar that Abhimanyu was killed and Asvatthaman defeated by Arjuna. The capital of the kingdom in the Vedic age. was Asandivat, probably identical with Hastinapura, about which a note appears later on. Samantapancaka, mentioned in the Urubhanga of our plays, where the great Kuru battle was fought, was the place in Kuruksetra where Parasurama (Rama with the axe) is said to have slain the Ksatriya race." 1. 66 Kurujangala. Kurujangala, as stated in the previous note, was a part of the Kuru kingdom, and as its name signifies, was a forest tract. It was a forest country situated in Sirhind, to the north-west of Hastinapura. It was called Srikanthadesa in the Buddhist period and its capital was Bilaspur. Kosala. Kosala is included in the list of mahajanapadas by both the Buddhist and Jain works and is also mentioned by Panini. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the Kosalas as falling under the influence of Brahmanical culture later than the Kurupancalas and earlier than the Videhas. The kingdom of Kosala was bounded on the west by Pancala, on the south by the rivers Syandika and Sarpika, on the east by the Sadanira beyond which lay the Videha country, and on the north by the Nepal hills. It roughly corresponds to modern Oudh. a It was divided into two kingdoms, north-Kosala (which corresponded with the modern Bahraich district), and Kosala. At the time of Buddha, Kosala was powerful kingdom which included the Kasis and the Sakyas. It was ruled over by king Prasenajit (Pasenadi) of the celebrated Iksvaku family. He had 1 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India p. 110, 2 Woolner and Sarup, Thirteen Triv. Plays, Vol. 2, p. 45 n 1. 3 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India p. 110. 4 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 51, 57-58, 65-67; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India pp. 14, 103; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc, Ind. 2 nd Edn. pp. 62-63.

330 matrimonial alliances with Magadha and the Sakyas. The Sakyas practised a trick on Pasenadi in that he was given a girl of impure blood in marriage, whom, in ignorance, the king raised to the position of a chief queen. Vidudabha, the issue of the marriage, was subjected to indignities as the result of his visit to the Sakya countries where he went against his mother's advice, and there he came to know of the real origin of his mother. When Pasenadi learnt of the deceit he degraded both the queen and the prince, but on Buddha's intercession, reinstated them. Vidudabha wreaked a terrible vengeance on coming to the throne by ordering a ferocious massacre of the Sakyas.* During Pasenadi's absence, Dighacarayana, the commander-in-chief, raised prince Vidudabha to the throne. Pasenadi set out for Rajagrha to get help from his nephew Ajatasatru, but died from exposure outside the gates of Rajagrha. There were wars between Kosala and Magadha, and finally Kosala was absorbed into the Magadha kingdom. The Vedic texts do not mention any city in Kosala. Ayodhya on the bank of the Sarayu was the capital of Kosala according to the Ramayana. Kusavati, founded by Kusa was once the capital of a part of the kingdom. Sravasti or Savatthi was the capital in Buddha's time and it has been identified with the great ruined city Maheth, on the south bank of the Rapti, situated on the borders of the Gonda and Bahraich districts of the U. P. Saketa, identified by Cunningham with Ayodhya, was an important town in the kingdom and was its capital in the period immediately preceding Buddha. Ayodhya seems to be the earliest capital, Saketa the next, and Sravasti was the last capital. Saketa and Sravasti were included among the six great cities of ancient India. Gandhara. The king and the people of Gandhara are mentioned in the Rgveda and the Atharvaveda. It is included in the sixteen mahajanapadas in the Buddhist literature. The country lies on both sides of the Indus 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 66-67. 2 Bhandarkar. Carmichael Lectures , p. 51; Cunningham, ASR, I, p. 320. As regards the identity of Saketa and Ayodhya, Prof. Rhys Davids points out that both cities are mentioned as existing in Buddha's time. (Political History of Ancient India 1 st Edn., p. 49). 3 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 48, 54; Cunningham, Anc. Geog. pp. 55-56; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 60-61; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism pp. 49-50; Ray Chaudhury Political History of Ancient India 2 nd Edn, pp. 38, 93; 3 rd Edn, pp. 103, 104. 4 Rgveda I. 126. 7; Atharvaveda V, 22, 14.

331 comprising the districts of Peshawar of the NorthWestern Frontier and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab; it included West Punjab and East Afghanistan according to Dr. Bhandarkar.' Ptolemy, however, states the Indus to be the western boundary of Gandari. Jataka No. 406 indicates Gandhara to have included also Kashmir and Taksasila. According to the Puranas the kings of Gandhara were the descendants of Druhyu. King Pukkusati who ruled over Gandhara in the sixth century B. C. is said to have sent an embassy to Bimbisara, king of Magadha, and to have defeated king Pradyota of Avanti. Gandhara was conquered by the king of Persia in the latter half of the sixth century B. C. In the Behistun inscription of Darius, Gandharas appear among the subject people of the Achamenidan Empire. In the Ramayana, Puskaravati (or Puskalavati) the most ancient capital of Gandhara has been placed in Gandharvadesa, and the Kathasaritsagara calls Puskaravata the capital of the Vidyadharas. It is not unlikely that the name Gandhara as found in the Mahabharata and in the Buddhist works is a corruption of Gandharvadesa of Valmiki. It had two capitals, Purusapura, which is now called Peshawar, and Taksasila, the Taxila of the Greek historians. Though apparently mentioned as a despised people in the Atharvaveda, Gandhara became the resort of scholars of all classes who flocked to Taksasila for instructions in three Vedas and sixteen branches of knowledge. Panini, a native of Gandhara refers to Taksasila in IV. 3. 93. Puskaravati or Puskalavati was another great city which is represented by the modern Prang and Charsadda, seventeen miles north-east of Peshawar on the Swat river.* Janasthana. Janasthana corresponds roughly to the district of Aurangabad in Nizam's Dominions and the country between the rivers Godavari and Krsna. Pancavati or Nasik was included in Janasthana. Janasthana formed part of the Dandakaranya of the Ramayana. According to Pargiter, it lay on both the banks of the 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 54. 2 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India , 3 rd Edn., p. 104. 3 cf. Sat. Bra. XI. 4. 1. 1. et seq; Kaus. Up. VII. 6; Chandogya Up.; for the Buddhist Period, cf. R. Mookerji, Visvabharati Qtly. Oct. 1928, pp. 228-229. 4 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India 1 st Edn., p. 24, 5 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , p. 80.

332 Godavari and was probably the country around the junction of Godavari with Vainaganga. Daksinapatha. Though not strictly referring to any particular country, Daksinapatha in ancient times signified the region to the South. The expression "daksina pada" occurring in Rgveda X. 61.8 with reference to the place where the exile has been expelled does not, in the opinion of Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar, denote Daksinapatha or Southern India as we understand it, but simply "the South" beyond the limits of the recognized Aryan world." Panini uses the word 'Daksinatya' and Baudhayana refers to "Daksinapatha' coupled with 'Saurastra'; but it is not clear what either exactly meant by 'Daksinatya' or 'Daksinapatha'. Panini, however, mentions no province south of the Narmada except Asmaka. Whatever be the correct meaning of those terms, it is certain that in the period of the Aitareya Brahmana, the Aryans had crossed the Vindyas and had come in contact with several states in the Deccan including Vidarbha or Berar. Vidarbha existed as an independent kingdom in the time of Nimi king of Videha, and Nimi and Nagnajit king of Gandhara, and Bhima king of Vidarbha were contemporaries of Karandu of Kalinga, showing that the kingdom of Kalinga existed in the Brahmana period. Ancient Kalinga comprised: modern Orissa to the south of the Vaitarani and the sea-coast southward as far as Vizagapatam. The Aryan kingdoms in the south comprised of the Bhojas, the Ailas and the Iksvakus occupying Vidarbha, Kalinga, Asmaka and Dandaka. The whole of the remaining part of the trans-Vindhyan India was occupied by non-Aryan tribes such as the Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras, Pulindas and Mutibas. The Aryan route to the South lay through Avanti to the Vindyas and then through Vidarbha and Mulaka to Asmaka, and from there to Madura through the Raichur and Chitaldrug districts." Daksinapatha thus means the Deccan, i. e., the territory lying south of the Narmada. The Greeks called it by the name Dakhinabades. 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , pp. 2-23; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 52; Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India 2 nd Edn, pp. 53-54. 2 Carmichael Lectures , p. 2. 3 Panini, IV. 2. 98; Baudhayana Sutra, I. 1. 29. 4 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 4. 5 Ait. Bra, VII. 34-9; Kumbhakara Jataka; Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 2-3. Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 1 st Edn, p. 41. 6 Cunningham's Anc. Geog. p. 735 n. 7 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , pp. 22-23.

333 2 ☐ Kundina, the capital of Vidarbha corresponds to the modern Kaundinyapura on the banks of the Wardha in the Chandur Taluk of Amraoti.' Dantapuranagara was the capital of Kalinga, and Potana that of Assaka. The river Telavaha on which Andhapura, the capital of the Andhras is stated to be situated, has been identified by Dr. Bhandarkar with either the Tel or Telingiri flowing near each other not far from the confines of the C. P. and Madras. Pulindanagara, the capital of the Pulindas, lay to the south-east of Dasarna, the Vidisa or Bhilsa region.* 8 Magadha. Magadha appears in the list of mahajanapadas of the Buddhist and Jain writers. Earliest reference to Magadha is found in the Atharvaveda. The people of Magadha are spoken in terms of contempt in the early Vedic literature. The Vedic dislike of the Magadhas, as Oldenberg thinks, was in all probability due to the fact that the Magadhas were not wholly Brahmanized. Magadha roughly corresponds to Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar, which are still called by the name Maga, corruption of Magadha. It once extended south of the Ganges from Benares to Monghyr and southward as far as Singhbhum. The kingdom was established by Vasu, son of Kusa; the Mahabharata and the Puranas, however, mention Brhadratha, son of Vasu Caidyoparicara and father of Jarasandha as the founder of the earliest dynasty of Magadha. The Barhadratha dynasty had come to an end before Buddha's time. 8. Girivraja, also known as Rajagrha, was the ancient capital of Magadha, which was subsequently removed to Pataliputra. Short notes appear on both the cities later on in this chapter. Magadha was an important political and commercial centre and people from all parts of Northern India flocked to the country for commerce. The second Magadhan 1 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 1 st Edn, p. 41. 2 Ray Chaudhury, op. cit, p. 42. 3 Indian Antiquary, 1918, p. 71; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 1 st Edn, p. 44. 4 Ray Chaudhury, op. cit, p. 44. 5 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 39, 40, 48-50, 56, 57, etc., Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 6, 518; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , pp. 116-117; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 8-11; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 3 rd Edn, pp. 78, 79. 6 Atharvaveda, V. 22. 14; cf. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 50. 7 Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 400 n; Ray Chaudhury, Pol, Hist. Anc. Ind, 1 st Edn, p. 57. 8 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India p. 117. 9 Ramayana, I. 32. 7; Mahabharata, I. 63.30.

334 In dynasty, according to the Puranas, was the Saisunaga dynasty founded by king Sisunaga. Magadha formed friendly relations with its neighbouring countries in the north and the west by marriages and other alliances. Buddha's time, Bimbisara ruled over Magadha. He embraced Buddhism and helped much in the spread of that religion in the country. He built many Viharas for the Buddhists. His son Ajatasatru imprisoned him and usurped the throne. He transferred the old capital from Rajagrha to Pataliputra. Though antagonistic to Buddhism at first, he accepted the doctrines later on and built a large mandap for the Buddhists near his capital. Anga and Vajjis were under the suzerainty of Magadha. Matsya. Matsya formed one of the sixteen mahajanapadas in the Buddhist literature. According to Dr. Bhandarkar, Matsya originally included parts of Alwar, Jaipur and Bharatpur. But, as stated by Dr. Ray Chaudhury, "Alwar seems to have been the territory of a neighbouring people-the Salvas";³ Dr. Law and Mr. Dey, however, include Alwar in the Matsya country.* Maccheri, corruption of Matsya, is situated twenty-two miles south of Alwar. Matsyas first appear in the Rgveda (VII. 18. 6) as the enemies of Sudasa. They are also mentioned in the Satapatha and Gopatha Brahmanas and the Kausitaki Upanisad. It was the kingdom of Virata where the Pandavas stayed for one year incognito. Monarchical system of government seems to have prevailed in Matsya till the loss of its independence as its name does not appear in the list given by Kautilya of states having a samgha form of government. Mr. Dey gives two other Matsya countries which corresponded with (1) Coorg and (2) the southern portion of Tirhut; but Bhasa has referred to the Matsya country occupied by Virata. 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, pp. 52-53; Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 387. 391, 702. Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 128, 129; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, p. 20; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 3 rd Edn, pp. 44-45, 96. 2 Carmichael Lectures, p. 58; Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn, pp. 44, 45. In a foot-note on p. 39 of the 2 nd Edn. of the Political History of Ancient India, Dr. Ray Chaudhury has referred to Dey (Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, 1 st Edn, p. ii) to be in his favour. It appears that Dey has changed his view, (op. cit, 2 nd Edn, p. 128). 3 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 128; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, p. 19. 4 Sat. Brah, XIII. 5. 4. 9; Gopatha Bra, I. 2. 9; Kausitaki Up, IV. 5 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn. p. 96. 6 Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 128-129.

335 Pargiter thinks its capital was Upaplavya, at a distance of two days' journey by chariot from Hastinapura; but according to Nilakantha's commentary on the Mahabharata, Upaplavya was a city near Viratanagara." Viratanagara was the capital of the Matsya country and a short note appears thereon later in this chapter. 2 Madra. Madra was a country in the Punjab between the Ravi and the Chinaub. Some take it to have extended from the Bias to the Jhelum. Dr. Ray Chaudhury states the country to have been divided into two partsNorthern and Southern. Northern Madra was beyond the Himavat range, near the Uttarakurus, probably in Kashmir. Southern Madra, or the Madra proper, was the central Punjab, roughly corresponding with modern Sialkot and the neighbouring districts. Madra was the kingdom of Salya, the maternal uncle of the Pandavas. Modern Sialkot, which is the corrupt form of Kot (fort) of Salya, was its capital, which was known in those days as Sakala. Mithila. Mithila was another name for Videha, though the capital of Videha was also known as Mithila. During the Brahmana period Mithila had a monarchical constitution." According to the Ramayana the royal family of Mithila was founded by Nimi. Janaka was the son of Mithi who was Nimi's son. The Jatakas state that the Videha kingdom measured three hundred leagues and consisted of sixteen thousand villages." Karala Janaka was the Videha king whose lascivious conduct brought his line to an end, the overthrow of the monarchy being followed by the rise of a republic-the Vajjian confederacy. Thus, in Buddha's time, Videha country was one of the eight constituent principalities of the Vajjian confederacy, which constituted one of the sixteen mahajanapadas mentioned both by the Jain and Buddhist writers. The kingdom of Videha over which Janaka, father of Sita ruled, roughly corresponds to modern Tirhut in Bihar. Its western boundary was the Sadanira which 1 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn. p. 45. 2 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 156; Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 212, 686; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 116; Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 2 nd Edn. p. 37. 3 Political History of Ancient India, 2 nd Edn. p. 37. 4 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 50;Cunningham. Anc. Geog, pp. 509, 510, 718; Dey, Geog, Dict, p. 35; Law, Geog, Early Bud, pp. 30-31; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist, Anc. Ind, 2 nd Edn, pp. 28, 74. 5 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 1 st Edn, pp. 20-23. 6 Ja, 406, 489.

336 cannot be the modern Gandaka as the Mahabharata mentions both rivers side by side; so Pargiter's identification of the Sadanira with the Rapti seems to be correct. Janakapura or Mithila was the capital of Videha. It has been identified with Janakpur, a small town within the Nepal border, to the north of which Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga districts meet. According to Mr. Dey, Benares afterwards became the capital of Videha. Lanka. Lanka has variously been identified with some places in the central India, in Egypt or with Ceylon. Mr. Dey has mentioned some good reasons to suppose that Lanka and Ceylon are not identical. Some Puranas mention Lanka and Simhala as distinct, and Varahamihira says that Lanka and Ujjayini are situated on the same meridian, while Ceylon lies far to the east of this meridian. The Ramayana suggests that Lanka was to the south of the Cardamum mountains and that one must cross the Tamraparni to reach Lanka; whereas one is not required to cross the Tamraparni to reach the island by Adam's Bridge. Many writers, on the other hand, confirm the ancient tradition from which it appears that the modern Ceylon corresponds with with Lanka. The Mahavamsa distinctly states that the island of Lanka was called Simhala by Vijaya after his conquest. Dharmakirti, the author of Dathavamsa says that Simhala and Lanka are the same islands, and the Rajavali mentions the tradition of the war of Ravana in Ceylon. The name of the capital was also Lanka which was a town in Ceylon. Vanga. The name Vanga first occurs in the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also referred to repeatedly in the epics and other Sanskrit works. Dr. Bhau Daji identified Vanga with the country between the Brahmaputra and the Padma. According to Majumdar Sastri, Vanga is bounded on the west by the Brahmaputra, on the south by the Ganges, on the east by the Meghna and on the north by the Khasi hills. Pargiter states that Vanga must have comprised the modern districts of Murshidabad, Nadia, Jessore, parts of Rajashahi, Pabna and Faridpur. 1 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 2 nd Edn, p. 28. 2 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 718. 3 Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 35.. 4 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 113-114. Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 780; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 22.

337 As already stated, in the period of the Mahabharata, the residents of Vanga (along with Anga, Kalinga, Pundra and Suhma) were regarded as of mixed origin and the Brahmanas were prohibited from residing in the country. Vatsa. Vatsa is included among the sixteen mahajanapadas both by the Jain and Buddhist writers. Oldenberg seems inclined to identify the Vamsas (Vatsas) with the Vasas of the Aitareya Brahmana; but, in the opinion of Dr. Ray Chaudhury, the conjecture lacks proof" Majumdar Sastri, however, derives Vamsa from Vasa, which he takes to be the old Vedic form of Vatsa.³ 2 66 The Satapatha Brahmana mentions a teacher named Proti Kausambeya, evidently referring to Kausambi, the capital of the Vatsa kingdom.* The Vatsa country has variously been taken to be Rewah district round the Buddhist ruins at Bharhut, or Banda district. It appears to be the region to the west of Allahabad. The Ganges was its northern boundary at the time of the Ramayana. we The earliest king of Kausambi about whom know anything is Satanika II of the Pauranic list. The Puranas state the name of his father to be Vasudana, while according to Bhasa, it was Sahasranika. Satanika had married a princess of Videha as his son is called Vaidehiputra. He is said to have attacked Campa, the capital of Anga, during the reign of Dadhivahana. The famous Udayana Vatsaraja who was a scion of the celebrated Bharatakula of Vedic renown, and about whom we know so much from Bhasa's works, was the son and successor of Satanika. He married Vasavadatta, daughter of king Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti, and Padmavati sister of king Darsaka of Magadha. After hearing of the death of Pradyota of Avanti, his father-in-law, Udayana asked his brother-in-law Gopala who was staying with him, to go to Avanti and rule there. The latter, however, abdicated in favour of his younger brother Palaka. grieved at Pradyota's death that he Udayana was so much of ?? 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures pp. 57, 81, 84; Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 709-710; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India pp. 28, 96-97; Law, Geog Early Buddhism, p. 16; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn, pp. 83-85. 2 Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 393 n; Pol. Hist Anc. Ind, 3 rd Edn, p. 92. 3 Cunningham's, Anc. Geog, p. 710. 4 Sat. Bra, XII. 2. 2. 13.

338 resolved to depart from this world. He placed his son Naravahanadatta under the charge of Gopala and proceeded to a precipitous hill with both his queens ; ascending the top, all the three killed themselves by falling down. This occurred in 490 B. C., the same year that Pradyota died.' A short note appears later on dealing with Kausambi, the capital of the Vatsa kingdom. Videha. Videha has already been dealt with under "Mithila." 8 Surasena. Surasena was one of the sixteen mahajanapadas, mentioned in Buddhist works. There is no reference to Surasena or Mathura (its capital) in the Vedic literature, but Saurasenoi and Methora occur in the Greek accounts. According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, Yadu or Yadava whose tribe is often mentioned in the Rigveda along with other tribes was the progenitor of the ruling family of Surasena. The country received its name from Sura, the father of Vasudeva and Kunti. According to the Vayupurana, the country was named after Surasena, a son of Satrughna, and later on it passed into the hands of the Yadavas. Surasena corresponds to the present district of Muttra with the small states of Bharatpur, Khiraoli and Dholpur, and the northern half of the Gwalior territory. The Surasenas continued to be a notable people up to the time of Megasthenes. Mathura, the capital of Surasena, has been dealt with in a note later on. Saurastra. Saurastra, the Syrastrene of Ptolemy, corresponds to modern Kathiawar and other portions of Gujarat. In the days of the Ramayana , Surastra represented the country from the Indus to Broach, i. e., Gujarat, Cutch and Kathiawar. According to Hoernle, Saurajya was a synonym of Saurastra. Saurastra was included in the Mauryan Empire and was governed by 2 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , 1 Pradhan, Chronology of India, p. 246. pp. 48, 53; Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 427-429, 706; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India , pp. 127-128, 197; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp . 20-21; Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn., pp. 97-100. 3 Rgveda , I. 108. 8; also Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn, p. 97. 4 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp . 427-428. 5 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , pp. 23-24; Cunningham, Anc. Geog. pp. 363, 371, 699; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India p. 183; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, p. 58. 6 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , 1873, p. 105.

339 Satraps under Asoka and the Mauryan kings. Tradition connects Madhavapura in Kathiawar with the marriage of Krsna with Rukmini, and Prabhasapattana (near Veraval) with the death of the Lord. Saurastra, Surastra, Surath is now known as Surat which is a district in Gujarat in Bombay Presidency. Valabhi was the capital of Surastra. or Sauvira. There is an amount of difference of opinion as to the identity of Sauvira. Cunningham takes Sauvira to be another name for the province of Badari or Eder at the head of the gulf of Cambay, Southern or South-Western Rajputana.2 Rhys Davids places Sauvira to the north of Kathiawar and along the gulf of Cutch. Rapson says that Sindhu and Sauvira represent the same country and hence Sauvira corresponds with Sind. According to Pandit Bhagwanlal Indrajit, Sindhu is Sind and Sauvira forms part of Upper Sind. The Markandeya Purana locates Sindhu and Sauvira in Northern India along with Gandhara, Madra, etc. Nandolal Dey prefers the identification suggested by Alberuni with Multan and Jahrawar. Sauvira may have been the Sophir or Ophir of the Bible. The country had vast maritime relations with the West and the Bible refers to gold, monkeys and peacocks as having been exported from Ophir. The inhabitants of Sindhu-Sauvira along with those of Avanti and Magadha have been referred to by Baudhayana as outside Aryavarta and of mixed origin; some sin was attached for those contracting marital relations with these people. In Bhasa, on the contrary, we find all the three countries occupying the same position as the other countries in Aryavarta. Roruka is said to have been the capital of Sauvira. to CITIES. Ayodhya. Ayodhya was in Kosala which corresponds modern Oudh. Kosala as already stated one of the sixteen mahajanapadas mentioned by the was 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures p. 24. Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 569, 570, 648; Dey , Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India p. 188; Law, Geog. Early Buddhism, p. 58. pp. 569, 570, 643. 3 Bud. Ind, p. 321. 4 Anc. Ind, p. 168. p. 183. 6 Baudh. Su. I. 1. 2. 18; cf. Bhide, Svapna, Intr., p. 16. 2 Anc. Geog, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India,

340 Buddhist and Jain writers. During Buddha's time, the province was divided into Uttara Kosala and Daksina Kosala, the river Sarayu serving as a dividing line. The capital of Northern Kosala, as previously stated, was Sravasti on the Rapti, and Ayodhya on the Sarayu was the capital of Southern Kosala. Ayodhya was also the capital of the Solar kings of the Raghu line. It is It is said to have extended forty eight miles in length and twelve miles in breadth. Nandigrama was one of its suburbs, wherefrom Bharata governed the kingdom in Rama's absence. Ayodhya, as is well known, plays an important part in the story of the Ramayana. Regarding the identification of Saketa and Ayodhya, Rhys Davids has pointed out that both cities existed in Buddha's time; it is not unlikely that both were adjoining cities like London and Westminster.' Ayodhya occupies a premier place among the seven sacred cities of the Hindus reputed to confer final beatitude on those leaving their mortal coil at any one of those cities." In Buddha's time, Ayodhya had sunk to the level of an unimportant town. It was not included in the six great cities of ancient India. Avanti. Avanti (or Ujjayini) was the capital of the country of that name. It is said to have been founded by the scions of the Yadu family. Ujjayini was situated on the river Sipra and had an area of two miles. The ancient city seems to have existed at a distance of one mile to the south from the present city, as pillars and other remains of buildings are found embedded underground there. There is an ancient temple of Mahakalesvara at Ujjain. Vinda and Anuvinda ruled here at the time of the Pandavas and Canda Pradyota at the time of Buddha. King Asoka resided here in 263 B. C. as his father's viceroy and Mahendra was born to Asoka at Ujjayini. At the time of our poet, the public baths at Ujjayini were wellknown. The city has been known to 2 Of. 1 Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn. p. 63. ayodhya mathura maya kasi kali avantika | puri dvaravati caiva saptaita moksadayakah || 3 Rhys Davids, Bud. Ind, p. 34. 4 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 45: Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 726; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 13, 209; Law, Geog Early Buddhism, p. 22; Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn. pp. 102-103. 5 Cf. Svapna, p. 102. -atthi nabhari ujjaini nama | tahim ahiaramaniani udaahvanani vattanti kila |

341 be an important trading centre and is mentioned as such in the Buddhist and Sanskrit literature. Kampilya. Kampilya corresponds with modern Kampil which is situated twenty eight miles to the north-east of Fathgad in the Farokhabad district in the U. P. It lies on the old Ganges between Budaon and Farokhabad to the north of Kanoj and east of Muttra. Great Pancala king Culani Brahmadatta is mentioned in Jataka No. 546, the Uttaradhyayanasutra and the Svapnavasavadatta; but the story of Brahmadatta is essentially legendary and little reliance can be placed on it. Kampilya was the capital of Drupada, king of South Pancala. North Pancala had Ahicchatra for its capital. Kampilya was the scene of the famous Draupadi Svayamvara. Kanoj flourished in the regime Harsavardhana and as a result Kampilya gradually lost its importance. Mahomedans christened it 'Kampil which is its present name. > of Kiskindha. Kiskindha is a small village in Dharwar district on the south bank of the Tungabhadra near Anagandi. It is a suburb of Vijayanagara and lies near Bellary. It comprises hills lying on the other side of Humpi, consisting of a vast range of naked granite rocks with narrow valleys between. There is an oval-shaped heap of calcareous scoria, partially covered with white carbonate of lime, grass and other vegetation which the local Brahmanas aver as being the ashes of the giant Vali, killed by Rama as an ally of Sugriva. Kausambi. The question of the identification of Kausambi has now finally been set at rest on various grounds by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni by identifying it with Kosam, a village on the left bank of Jumna, thirty miles south-west of Allahabad. It was the capital of Vatsadesa or Vamsadesa, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas mentioned in Jain and Buddhist works. The city is said to have been founded variously by Kusamba, the tenth descendant of Pururavas, by Cedi, and by Kusamba, the son of Kusa, in different works. The city is known since 1 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 704; Dey, Geog, Dict, p. 88. 2 Ray Chaudhury Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn. p. 86. 3 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 100-101. 4 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 448-452, 709; Dey, Geog Dict, pp. 28, 96-97; Law, Geog Early Buddhism, p. 16; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 2 nd Edn. p. 83 Sarup. Vision, Notes, p. 141.

342 the days of Satapatha Brahmana and is mentioned in Vedic and Buddhist works. Kausambi was enumerated in the list of ten big cities of India. The well known, the author of the Vartikas, is said to have been born at Kausambi and became minister of Nanda, king of Pataliputra. When the city of Hastinapura was washed away by the Ganges, king Nicaksu, the great great great great grandson grandson of Janamejaya transferred his capital to Kausambi.' The story of Udayana who ruled over Vatsadesa with its capital at Kausambi is well known especially to all students of Bhasa. The Lalitavistara states that Udayana Vatsa, son of Satanika, king of Kausambi, was born on the same day as Buddha. Udayana, son of Parantapa, is said to have been converted to Buddhism by Pindola; but he appears. to be quite different from Udayana Vatsaraja, son of Satanika. Udayana was the first to prepare an image of Buddha in red sandalwood during the latter's life-time. Gautama Buddha spent two years at Ghosita-Arama of Kausambi. - Vararuci or Katyayana, 2 Pataliputra. Pataliputra was known by various names, all synonyms of Patali-such as Kusumapura, Puspapura, Kusumadhvaja. Originally a small village named Pataligrama, king Ajatasatru of Magadha laid the foundation of a large and fortified city at the site in 554 B. C. in order to repel the attacks of the Vajjis of Vaisali. Udayasva, grandson of Ajatasatru and son of Darsaka (whose existence has been confirmed by Bhasa) removed the capital of Magadha from Rajagrha to Pataliputra. It remained the headquarters of the province for many centuries. The Vayupurana makes Udayasva the founder of Kusumapura or Pataliputra, 1 Cf. Pargiter, Dynasties of Kali Age, p. 5; Mahabharata, IX. 23. 40: gangayapahrte tasminnagare nagasahvaye | tyaktva nicaksurnagaram kausambyam sa nivatsyati || 2 Of. Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 450. 3 Rhys Davids, Bud. Ind, p. 7. The Buddhist accounts of such conversions as also of historical personalities and facts, especially from Hinduism are too much coloured, biassed and one-sided, and appear to have been twisted for the purpose of propaganda and hence cannot be accepted at their face value. They possess historicity or truth only if they are confirmed by independent non-Buddhist writers. From the other facts given about Udayana by the Buddhists, it appears that they meant Udayana Vatsaraja, but they have perverted history in their zeal to show the superiority of Buddhism. 4 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures , pp. 78, 79, 80, 82; Chakladar, Modern Review, March 1918, pp. 254-261; Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 518, 520, 719; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 151-154.

343 but the Buddhist accounts, stating that Buddha in his last journey saw the fortification of the village and predicted that it would become a great city, make it quite clear that the actual building of the city was begun by Ajatasatru, but the work was not finished till the reign of his grandson Udaya ( c. 450 B. C.). The city was at its zenith in the Mauryan age being the capital of the whole Mauryan Empire, and Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator in the Mauryan court, gives a glowing description of the city (Palibothra). He states that the town was situated on the confluence of the Ganges and Erannaboa (Hiranyabahu or the Sona) and was 80 stadia (10 miles) in length and 15 stadia (nearly two miles) in breadth. It was surrounded by a ditch 30 cubits deep and six hundred cubits broad for receiving the sewage of the town. The fortified city walls were adorned with five hundred and seventy towers and sixty four gates. The cities of Patna and Bankipur now occupy the site of the old Pataliputra. A very small portion of modern Patna is situated on the old site. Greater portion of the old city was diluviated by the Ganges and Sona in 750 A. D. Lt. Col. Waddell has shown that nearly the whole of the site of the old city is intact. Ancient remains lie buried below Patna, Bankipur and E. I. Railway at the depth of 10 to 20 feet. The old city was situated on the northern bank of old Sona but several miles distant from the Ganges which later shifted to the south. The river Sona formerly joined the Ganges just above Patna." The Chinese knew the city as Kusumopulo. The great astronomer Aryabhatta was a resident of this place. Mathura Mathura on the Jumna was the capital of Surasena, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. Modern Mathura is not on the ancient spot, which has moved. northward owing to encroachment of the Jumna. Mathura or Madhura is generally identified with Maholi five miles south-west of the present town of Muttra. Mathura is associated with Lord Krsna and many sites are shown. at present that played important parts in the adventures 1 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 520, 719. 2 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 429, 706; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 127, 128, 197.

Krsna. 344 of child Krsna. At a place called Janmabhumi or Karagara near Potarakunda, Krsna was born. Yogamaya was dashed to the ground by Kamsa at Jog-ghat. The hunch-back Kubja was cured at Kubja's well and the fight with Canura and Mustika was staged at Mallapura adjoining the temple of Kesavadeva. Kamsa was killed at Kamsa-ka-Tila outside the southern gate of the present city. Mathura is also associated with the penance of Dhruva. Madura the famous South Indian temple-city is known as Daksina Mathura. The reference in our plays is only to Mathura of Lord Krsna. Rajagrha. Rajagrha, also known as Girivraja, was the ancient capital of Magadha. The Ramayana tells that Girivraja was known by the name of Vasumati and the Mahabharata that it was also called Barhadrathapura and Magadhapura. Rajagrha was surrounded by five hills and the river Sarasvati flowed through the city passing out by the side of the northern gate, and the river Banaganga lay to the south of the city. At the time of the Ramayana the river Sona flowed through Rajagrha. Bimbisara commenced fortifying and laying out the new town of Rajagrha one mile to the north of the old site, and the operations were completed by his son Ajatasatru who transferred his capital to new Rajagrha. The new capital enjoyed supremacy for a short period till the headquarters were removed to Pataliputra in the reign of Udayi or Udayasva. Rajagrha had a gate which used to be closed in the evening after which no body, not even the king, could be admitted into the city. Rajagrha corresponds to Rajagir in Bihar, sixty two miles from Patna among the hills near Gaya. Venuvanavihara was the monastery in the bamboo grove near Rajagrha which was presented by king Bimbisara to Buddha, who resided there when he visited Rajagrha. It was situated just outside the north gate of the city at the foot of the Baibhara hill. At a hill named Suvarnagiri near 1 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 535, 721; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 66-69, 165; Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 9, 11; Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 3 rd Edn. p. 78. 2 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 29. Venuvana mentioned by Bhasa in the Pratijna (p. 8, 1 st Edn.) is certainly different from this Venuvanavihara. It was situated either near Narmada or near Yamuna.

345 old Rajagrha, Asoka passed his days after abdication. There are two other Rajagrhas one on the northern bank of the Bias in the Punjab which was the capital of Asvapati of Kekaya; the other was the capital of Balkh; but our poet evidently refers to Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha. Lanka. Lanka was the capital of the state of that name. Many fantastic descriptions of the city, about its vast amount of gold and jewellery are to be found in some works. The city is at present said to have been at the site of a mountain on the south-east corner of Ceylon. Some believe it to be the present Mantotte in Ceylon, while others think that the town has submerged. Viratanagara. Viratanagara was the capital of Matsya, the country of Virata. It corresponds with Vairat and five miles to the south-west of Delhi and forty one miles to the north of Jaipur. Some of the most famous edicts of Asoka have been found at Bairat. The excavations in Jaipur State conducted under the able guidance of Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni have resulted in many valuable articles of archaological interest being unearthed at Bairat and other places. According to Nandolal Dey it is a mistake to identify Virata with Dinajpur. (or Bairat) a village in Jaipur state, one hundred rat Vairantya. Vairantya was the capital of Kuntibhoja according to Bhasa. It is also mentioned in the Harsacarita as the capital of Rantideva. As the capital of Rantideva, it has been identified with Rintambur or Rintipur on the Gomti a branch of the Cambal. Bhasa has described the city in his Avimaraka. We have dealt with the description in a later chapter on 66. Urban and Rural Life". Srngiverapura. Srngiverapura where Rama crossed the Ganges on his way to Dandaka has been identified with Singraur on the Ganges twenty-two miles north-west of Allahabad. It was the residence of Guhaka Nisada. It is also known by the name of Ramachaura. 1 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 113-114. 2 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, pp. 387, 891; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India p. 38; Ray Chaudhury, Pol. Hist. Anc. India, 3 rd Edn, p. 45. 3 Ray Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 1 st Edn, p. 71. 4 Cf. Archaeological Remains and Excavations at Bairat, by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni. 5 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 16-17, 167. 8 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 192.

346 y Hastinapura. Hastinapura was the capital of Kuru to the north-east of Delhi. The old site is entirel diluviated by the Ganges. It is identified with an old town in Mawana Tahsil twenty-two miles north -east of Mirat and south-west of Bijnor on the right bank of the Ganges. Hastinapura (or Gajasahvaya) was probably known as Asandivat in the Vedic age. Gadamuktesvara containing a quarter the temple of Mukteswara Mahadeva was of ancient Hastinapura. Nicaksu the great great great grandson of Janamejaya removed his capital to Kausambi after Hastinapura was washed away by the Ganges. MOUNTAINS. Kraunca Parvata. Kraunca Parvata was that part of the Kailasa mountain of the Himalayas on which the Manasa Sarovara is situated. Trikuta. Mr. Dey mentions four Trikutas, viz. (1) in the south-east corner of Ceylon; (2) Trikota to the north of the Punjab and south of Kashmir; (3) Junnar; and (4) the Yamnotri in the Himalayas. The reference being from the Ramayana in our plays , the first from the above was evidently meant by Bhasa . the Mandara. The Varaha Purana states that Mandara is situated to the south of the Ganges and on the Vindhya range. Mr. Dey identifies Mandara or Mandaragiri with a hill seven hundred feet high situated in the Banka division of Bhagalpore district two or three miles to the north of Bamsi and thirty miles to the south of Bhagalpore. Mandara, according to Puranas, was used by the gods and demons to churn the ocean and the serpent Vasuki was utilized as a rope. There is a groove all around the hill in the middle, which the orthodox people take as suggesting the tying up of Vasuki. The The groove, however, is evidently artificial according to Mr. Dey, and bears the mark of the chisel. There are two Buddhist temples on the top of the hill which are now worshipped by the Jainas . On the western. side of the hill is a natural cavity in the rocks containing 1 Cunningham, Anc. Geog, p. 702; Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 74; Ray 2. Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, Chaudhury, Political History of Ancient India, 2 nd Edn , pp. 11, 22. 3 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 205-206 . 4 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 109, 124-125. p. 104.

347 a large quantity of pure limpid spring water called Akasaganga and a colossal image of Vamanadeva and a huge sculpture of Madhukaitabha. At the foot of the hill are extensive ruins of old temples and other buildings and also a tank called Papaharini where people bathe on the last day of Pausa when the image of Madhusudana is brought there from the town of Bamsi. The Mahabharata, however, recognizes no other Mandara except on the Himalayas and that is shown to be a portion of the Himalayas to the east of Sumeru in Garhwal. Some Puranas place the Badarikasrama containing the temple of Nara and Narayana on the Mandara, but the Mahabharata locates the Mandara to the east of the Gandhamadana and the north of Badarikasrama. According to the Vamanapurana, Mahadeva resided here after his marriage with Parvati. Malayagiri. The southern parts of the Western Ghats south of the Kaveri known as the Travancore hills constitute the Malaya mountain. It also includes the Cardamum mountains, the whole extending from the Coimbatore gap to Cape Comorin. Malayakoti has been identified with the promontory where the Western Ghats dip into the sea. One of the summits of the mountain known as the Agastyakuta mountain in Tinnevelly is said to be the residence of Agastya. It is also called Potiyam, the southern-most peak of the Annamalai mountains from where the river Tamraparni has its source." This Agastyakuta seems to be the place referred to by Meghanada in the Avimaraka.³ Mahendra. The whole range of hills extending from Orissa to Madura district was known as Mahendra Parvata. Principally, however, the name was applied to the range of hills separating Ganjam from the valley of the Mahanadi. A part of the range extending from North Sircars to Gondavana lying near Ganjam is still known as Mahendramalei or the hills of Mahendra. Meru. According to Mr. Sherring all local traditions 1 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 122. 2 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 2, 122. 3 Avi, p. 63 -adya bhagavantamagastyamaradhayitum malayaparvate vidyadharairutsavah prarabdhah | 4 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, 5 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 196-197. p. 119.

348 fix mount Meru as lying direct to the north of the Almora district. Mount Kedaranatha in Garhwal is still traditionally known as the original Meru. Mr. Dey identifies it with the Rudra Himalaya in Garhwal where the Ganges has its source; it lies near Badarikasrama and is also called Pancaparvata on account of its five peaks. According to the Matsya Purana, Sumeru is bounded on the north by Uttarakuru, on the south by Bharatavarsa, on the west by Ketumala and on the east by Bhadrasvavarsa. Vindhya. Vindhya or Vindhyacala is the same as the Vindhya hills to the north of river Narmada which runs eastward from the Baroda State. The range of the Vindhya hills then turns northwards and approaches the banks of the Ganges. The celebrated temple of Vindyavasini is situated on these hills near Gazipur. At a short distance from this is the temple of the eight-armed Yogamaya who came back to the hills after warning Kamsa. The fight between Durga and Sumbha and Nisumbha took place on the Vindhyacala. Another Vindhya has been identified by Pargiter with the hills and plateau of South Mysore. Suvela. Suvela was the mountain at the foot of which Rama had encamped with his army on his arrival in Lanka. It seems to have been near the sea as also near the capital of Lanka. Himalaya. Himalaya is the same as the famous Himalayan range. RIVERS. The Ganges, Narmada and Jumna are the only rivers mentioned by the poet, and these were the same as the rivers known by the same names at present. Besides the above, the poet has referred to a number of places which were only of temporary importance and hence cannot be identified at present. Udyamaka and Yupagrama were two villages in the Kurujangala.* Venuvana, Nagavana, Valukatirtha and Madayantika (v. 1. Madagandhira) were the stages in the journey from the Vatsa kingdom to Malwa. Lavanaka was on the P. 54. " 1 Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, p. 37; also Pargiter, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1894, p. 261. 2 Cf. Abh, 3 Mv, pp. 25, 26. 4 Pratijna, 2 nd Edn, p. 16.

349 frontiers of the Vatsa kingdom, and it was well known for specialization in Vedic learning." It appears from the places mentioned above that in the period when the poet flourished countries to the north of the Narmada were well known and there was practically no knowledge of the trans-Vindhyan southern region of India. The southern places and mountains such as Mahendra, Lanka, Suvela, Malaya and Kiskindha are simply copied from the Ramayana. This, of course, does not in any way help us to fix the chronology of the poet, as it has been shown that the whole of India was thoroughly known to the Indians from very ancient times. It is always unsafe to dogmatize on the strength of stray instances or arguments ex silentia. Probably, after the era adventurous merchants and colonizers was over, the general populace fell in the dark as to the topography of the country and the ignorance continued till the Maurya emperors and their successors led their armies southwards and annexed or subjugated the southern countries. of The separate mention of small states as separate entities, however, definitely places the poet in the pre-Mauryan period or in a period closely allied to the Mauryan epoch when the memory of the separate states was still fresh; for it would have been almost impossible for a poet coming long after the period of their unification and inclusion in the Mauryan empire and the loss of their individuality, to mention the states, especially when we take into consideration the scanty historical material the ancients furnish us with, with all our historical research'. So it can better be imagined how utterly impossible it would have been for a poet of a late date to refer to such details; to speak nothing of a southerner! Post-Asokan dramatists portraying southern countries exhibit a wide and accurate knowledge of their topography. 1 Svapna, p. 27; Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, p. 62.