Part 11 - Drinks and Beverages in the Mahabharata

A number of liquors and intoxicating drinks are mentioned in the Mahabharata Drinking, on the whole, was a very common practice with most people, but particularly with the Ksatriya princes. Every occasion for celebration and social get-together, be it religious or secular, was turned into a drinking party (I.136.8, 213.54; IV.14.5, 10, 67.27; XIV.1.19, 91.36). Certain tribes like the Yadavas, along with their clansmen, the Andhaka-Vranis, were particularly vulnarable to the addiction of drinking. Twice in the cource of their history, when the city of Dwarka was

- 182 threatened with external agression or with internal strife, a special order was proclaimed throughout the city imposing a total ban on the drinking of liquor (III.16.12; XVI.2.17- -19). Despite these precautions, the tragic end of Lord Krana and his Yadavas was ultimately the climax to a savage bout of drinking (XVI.4). Excess drinking was often indulged in, regardless of the consequences, during pleasure outings of which there never was a dirth. It was during one such outing that the Yadavas, under the maddening influence of wine, turned one against another, till their entire clen was wiped out. That other drinking parties too, often ended in violent clashes is evident from another episode, that of the brothers Sunda and Upasunda, who killed each other in a mace dual over the beautiful Tilottama, after having drunk to their hearts' content (I.204.11-19). Women accompanied their men on all these outings and enjoyed themselves with the same fervour. When Yayati came across Devayani and her friends sporting in the forest, all the girls were slightly tipsy with excess wine (1.76.3). The most effective picture, however, comes from the Adiparva (1.214.23). Draupadi end Subhadra with their female. attendants accompanied Krana and Arjuna to the banks of the Yamuna and abandoned themselves to drunken gaity. The two queens pulled out their garments and ornaments and distributed them to the women around, who were hardly in their senses,

- 183 some dancing with faltering steps, others screaming, laughing, crying or hitting out at each other as they drank. The less violent ones suddenly became very trusting, and started giving away their secrets to one another. Thus, drinking by women, particularly the princesses was nothing uncommon. Krsna and Arjuna, close friends as they were, are seen drinking together once again in the company of Draupadi and Satyabhama (V.58.4, 5, 7). Queen Sudesna sent out Draupadi to her brother Kicaka's palace to fetch some wine in order simply to quench her thirst (IV.14. 10), and when Draupadi approached Kicaka with a jar he promptly invited her to come and drink with him (IV.15.3). sita refusing to accept Ravana's advances puts him a pointed question "Can a woman who has tasted the best of wine made from honey and mahua flowers, ever be tempted by the sour liquor brewed from rice ?" During the celebrations of the Asvamedha there were women all around, dancing and singing in drunken frivolousness (XIV.91.38). These are some of the more prominent intences of women drinking in the Epic. (III.262.38). Under these circumstances the poets are often tempted to draw upon the rather appealing picture of a tipsy woman. Thus the Kaurava army, facing a terrible rout, is like a drunken woman faltering at every step (IX.8.37); the battlefield bathed in blood is like a beautiful woman, her clothes wet with the redness of wine

- 184 (XII.160.61); while a boat tossing on the waves of a sea is like a woman swaying in drunkeness (III.185.40). The women most addicted to wine were, however, those from the North-West, from the Bahlika and Madra countries. They sang and danced in public places in a drunken orgy, casting off their clothes, and were prepared to part even with their sons, but not with a drop of their favorite brew Sauviraka (VIII.27.85, 87; 30.16). From Karna's condemnation of the Bahlikas it appears that drinking in public places was considered improper for women, though they indulged in it, in the seclusion of their homes and in the company of their own men. The Bahlikas and the Madras, as well as the residents of the city of Sakalavata were, on the whole, like the Yadavas excessively fond of drinks (VIII.30.15, 29-33). Condemnation of alchoholism does make its appearance in the didactic sections of the Mahabharata, particularly in the Santi and Anusasana. Giving up of alchohol is extolled as a virtue (V.33.74; XII.79.4-5), while the drunkards are condemned to hell (III.44.6; VII.16.29). A Brahmin is asked not to drink liquor, nor ever to take up its sale (XII.36. 13-16, 79.4; 283.4). All those who deal in liquor are dubbed evil and unfit for a place of honour at the sraddha feast (XIII.24.15, 90.7). One thing that stands out, however, as far as the drinking habits of the different castes are concerned, is that unlike meat-eating the occasions when the

- 185 Brahmins indulged in drinking are very rare. The most conspicuous example is of Sukracarya, the chief preist of the Daityas, who duped him to drink a cup of wine mixed with the ashes of his pupil Kaca. In disgust, he is supposed to have laid down the rule of non-alchoholism for the Brahmins (1.71.33, 54). However, it is not impossible that the Brahmins did share in the Bachanalian festivities of the Ksatriyas, particularly during the performance of grand sacrifices. That feasts at which Brahmins were invited we were replinshed with alchoholic drinks is evident from the 'Brahmana-bhojana' hoisted by Kunti (1.136.8). Not much attention is normally paid in the Epic to the existence of other castes besides the Ksatriyas and the Brahmins, but it is certain that almost the entire population was accustomed to drinking. There were drinking houses (panagarani), where people of all sorts gathered Just as they would in gardens, parks, public halls (sabha), and pilgrim places (XIII.138.41-42). A strict control is advised to be exercised over these drinking houses as harmful to the safety of a nation (XII.89.13), along with theatre-groups, gambling-dens, and the homes of courtesans. A large number of intoxicating beverages were known, most of them by general terms such as: 1) Sura: prepared from barley or rice flour was the common man's drink, right from Rgvedic days. In the Mahabharata too, it is the most popular drink (1.71.

- 186 33, 204,14; III.16.12; IV.14.7, 67.27; V.9.36; XII.79.4, 257.9; XIV.2.18, 58.12, 91.36). The Mahabharata records the belief, which is also found in the Ramayana, that the gods came to be called Suras owing to their great fondness for this drink (V.96.14). The drink has been deified as a female godess, Suradevi, who emerges from the ocean when it was churned by the gods and the demons (I.16.34). 2) Madya : is another general term for any kind of spirituous drink (V.33.89; VII.51.35; VIII.27.85; XII.283.4; XVI.4.7, 8). 3) Madira: too, appears to be a general term for any liquor (1.136.8), probably scented liquor, for Kicaka describes Draupadi as possessed of the maddening scent of madira (IV.13.6). Caraka and Susruta, in their medical works of the early Christian era, have described madira as the cream of sura (Om Prakash 1961 : 299). 4) Asava: was spirituous liquor in general (XII.257.9), but more particularly a kind of rum or spirit distilled from sugar or molasses. According to Susruta it was an extract of Kapittha fruits (Feronia lemonica), molasses, honey, and some spices, in which the liquid part always predominated (Om Prakash 1961: 298). 5) Madhu: Ritht from the days of the Rgveda madhu has been a general term for any liquor made from honey, particularly fermented honey, mixed with milk,

- 187 water and spices (II.45.26; V.196.23; VII.55.30; XII.79. 4, 257.9; XIII.23.25, 128.26; XVI.1.19). The word has equivalents in many Indo-European languages such as the English word "Mead" (Macdonell and Keith 1912: I.123-124). 6) Pena: Literally means only a "drink", but the context very often makes it more explicit as an intoxicating drink (I.204.11, 213.54; II.5.59; III.188.67; XII.138.41-42). In early Buddhist literature many different fruit juices and syrups (pana and panaka) were allowed to the monks (Om Prakash 1961 : 76). In the Mahabharata too, the word 'pana' sometimes does suggest similar soft drinks e.g. those served by King Kusika for sage Cyavana (XIII.53.16), and those carried by the Pandavas to Dhrtarastra, Gandhari and Kunti in the hermitage (XVI.1.19). Both are described as "short drinks" (laghuni panakani), and in the latter case there is a clear distinction between them and the inebriating maireya and madhu. The sweet "panani" offered by the courtesan to sage Rayasriga too, seem to belong to the same 121 category (III..14). In any case, there is nothing to suggest that these drinks were spirituous. 7) Soma: was prepared from the juice of a creeper of the same name, with the addition of milk and honey, in the Vedic Period. A great favorite of the gods, it was reserved for sacrificial rites and for a privilaged few. The position in the Nbh, however, is totally changed,

- 188 so that a person dealing in liquor is refered to as a "Somavikrayi", and dubbed evil (V.35.39; XIII.24.15, 90.7). Particular Drinks 1) Surasava : was an asava or extract of sugar and molasses, in which sura brewed from rice or barley was used instead of water (XVI.2.18) (Om Prakash 1961 : 300). 2) Gaudasava or Gaudam mahasavam: was a rather strong asava prepared from Jaggery (guda), and a great favorite of a group of Bahlikas known as Jartikas, and of the citizens of Sakala (VIII.30.15, 30). 3) Varasava: was a refined asava drunk by Draupadi, Subhadra and their women friends during an outing on the banks of the Yamuna (I.214.23). 4) Madhvasava: was an Asava in which "madhu", the spirituous liquor made of honey predominated instead of water (V.58.5). 5) Keaudra: made from the honey of certain Himalayan flowers was brought as a gift for Yudhisthira by the Kiratas of the eastern Himalayas. As noted earlier, "madhu" was the general term for any liquor made from fermented honey, but honey, the chief ingredient

- 189 could be had from different flowers and consequently there was a difference in flavor and smell. 6) Kailavata madhu : : The word can be derived from 'Kilala', a sweet drink made from cereals in the tharvaveda (Om Prakash 1961: 299). This particular brew is mentioned in the Mahabharata only once. Satyaki, when he set out to aid Arjuna in a difficult battle, fortified himself with Keilavata madhu. His eyes became red and fierce with intoxication, and he seemed to be aflame like a fire whose potency has been doubled (VII.87.61-62). A few adhyayas later Bhima sets out in exactly the same manner to help out both, Arjuna and Satyaki (Footnote to VII.102. 53). This reference is however, dropped from the Critical Edition, and relegated to the footnotes, and the word too, is not exactly the same. It is a synonym, Kairataka, instead of Kailavata, and would suggest a drink associated with the Kiratas, made and drunk by them. However, this may not be necessarily so for 'ra' and 'la' are quite easily interchangable. Kailavata is more acceptable as it has antecedents in Kilala. Evidently the drink was highly intoxicating, and therefore, able to boost the moral of a warrior riding into a fierce battle. 7) Phalaian madhy: a sweet liquor made from some fruits was brought as a gift for Yudhisthira by certain tribes of mixed origins from the Trans-Indus region

- 190 (II.47.11). There is a slight chance that these unnamed fruits were grapes. 8) Madhumadhavi: Madhu, the liquor brewed from honey, combined with madhavi, the liquor made from madhuka flowers, became 'madhumadhavi (1.76.3; III. 262.38; IV.15.3). 9) Madhvika: too, was brewed from madhuka flowers, known in Hindi as mahua (Bassia latifolia), which are still a great favorite in Eastern-Central India for the preparation of spirituous drinks. Both these drinks seem to have been one of the finest and the most refined, and therefore, much favored by women (III.262.38; XI.20.7). The only parallel which Bhima can draw, in order to describe the taste of of Duhsasana's is blood, is the intoxicating, but sweet madhvika, on par with mother's milk and the divine nectar (VIII.61.7). 10) Sauviraka or Suviraka: was a favorite of the Madra and Bahlika women, who were reluctant to part even with a single drop of it (VIII.27.85, 87). Sauvira was actually the name of a people inbahiting a district in the neighbour- -hood of the Indus, and the drink was probably their invention, which became popular all over the North-West. From the words of sita, mocking at Ravana, comparing him to a Sauviraka drink, as contrasted with the refined madhvika

= 191 and madhumadhavi, it does not appear to have been a parti- - cularly high-class drink (III.262.38). According to the medical works a Susruta, it was a sour and fermented gruel of rice and jujube fruits (Monier Williams 1899 : 1255). Women probably never drank it, and this was perhaps yet another reason for Karna's contempt of the Madras and Bahlikas, and their women. 11) Sidhu or sidhu: was a spirituous liquor distilled from sugarcane and dhataki flowers, described by the Ramayana as a favorite of the non-Aryans (Om Prakash 1961 : 300). In the Mahabharata, however, it is a great favorite of the Madras and Bahlikas, particularly those from the city of Sakla (VIII.27.77,87, 30.32). There was yet another tribe, that of Lord Krana, the Andhaka- -Vrani, who were also heavily addicted to Sidhu (XVI.4.8). 12) Maireya: was a spiced liquor prepared from the bark of Mesasrngi (dry ginger) (Gynena Sylvestre), with the addition of jaggery or sugar (Om Prakash 1961 : 299) It was a favorite of the royalty, particularly on occasions of celebrations like Yajna and weddings (IV.67.27; XIV.58.12, 91.36; XVI.1.19). 13) Varuni: was a strong liquor prepared by fermenting the juice of the palm fruit and dates (Om Prakash 1961: 301). It had a mythical origin, according to which, it arose from the ocean when it was being churned

= 192 for nectar by the gods and the demons (V.100.12). At his coronation Yudhisthira was presented with Varuni, containred in a copper vessel by the Ocean himself (II.45.26). Thus, there is a strong association with the sea, although there is no mention of the people who might actually have brought it across the sea. In all probability, the wine was an import from Rome, with whom there was an intensive trade going during 1 st century B.C. to the 2 nd century A.D., for in literature too, Varuni appears rather late, in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas, and later in Kavya literature. This imported liquor was highly prized, for Duryodhana describes it as a wine which not even the Apsaras could fetch for Indra (II.45.26). 14) Madhuparka: has earlier been included in the list of food preparations, but it could well be a spirituous drink made from milk and honey. To feast a guest with wine and beef, would naturally be the greatest honour (V.38.3, 87.19). Soma was the drink par excellence in the Rgveda. With the admixture of honey and ghee, it acquired a sweet and delicious taste, and was believed to inspire confidence, courage, faith, and bestow powers of eloquence and immortali- -ty (Om Prakash 1961: 24).

- 193 The intoxicating liquor sura was next in importance to Soma, but it was condemned as giving rise to brawls while Soma was always recommended (Om Prakash 1961 : 25). Sura became more popular in later Vedic literature, and in the Aitareya Brahmana was placed ceremoniously in the hands of a king as a favorite drink of the Ksatriyas (Om Prakash 1961 : 25). As the importance of sura steadily increased, that of Soma decreased gradually, till its use came to be restricted to Srauta ritual only. The scarcity of the Soma creeper, as the Vedic people moved eastwards, was probably the crucial factor. The Mahabharata testifies to this completely reversed pattern of drinking. Sura is the most popular drink for all people and for all occasions. Soma, on the other hand, is mentioned hardly a few times, and that too, not in its original sense, but as a very general perm for any spirituous drink. t Maireya, another favored drink of the Ksatriyas, and commonly associated with their favorite sura, was introduced in the Sutra Period. It is mentioned by Panini as a spiced liquor for the aristocracy (Agrawala 1963 : 116-17). Some of the better known drinks of the Mahabharata like madhavi and sidhu were known to the Pali Canon. The Buddhist literature, on the whole, refers to many more varities of

- 194 of wine, and is full of details of the large scale manufa- -cture and consumption of liquor. There were taverns and drinking shops, and festive drinking was very common for both men and women. The picture projected by Kautilya brings out effectively the social importance of drinking in the Mauryan Period. There were liquor shops situated at fixed intervals, supervised by government suprintendents. The manufacture of wine was also a state monopoly, relaxed only on festive occasions. Many different varities of liquor and the process of their manufacture are mentioned by Kautilya, but amongst all of them, sura and maireya, stand out prominently (Arthasestra II.25). The atmosphere of social drinking in the Mahabharata is undeniably the same, as in the Pali literature and the Arthasastra, although the emphasis in the Mahabharata is almost entirely on the royal Ksatriyas. Yet there is a vital difference, which gives a chronological edge to the Mahabharata over the Arthasestra - namely the absence in the Mahabharata of grape-wine. The Arthasastra, on the other hand, speaks of mrdvika or wine made from grapes, with its two famous varities Kapisayana and Harahuraka imported from Afghanistan (Arthasastra II.25.24-25), through foreign Central Asian tribes like the Herahuras (Harahunas of the Hbh II.47.19). The Mahabharata too, refers to some of these tribes, of syth and n Hunfish origins. They brought a number of gifts for

- 195 Yudhisthira, but none of these included Mrdvika. As noted earlier, there is only one reference in the Mahabharata which can probably be singled out as refering to grape wine - "phalajam madhu" (II.47.11), wine made from some fruit, probably grapes. It was brought in by tribes of mixed origins, like the Vairamas, Kitavas, Paradas etc., who inhabitted the Trans- -Indus region and Baluchistan. But since wine was brewed from many other fruits too, it is not altogether safe to interprete the ford as refering to grape-wine. With the advent of foreigners, like the Greeks, h demand. Sakas, and Kusanas on the Indian scene, and the opening of a flourishing trade with Rome, the varities of drinks became more profuse and drinking more boistrous. Various asavas and sidhus distilled from fruits, flowers, barks of trees, honey, jaggery, treacle and sugar, were in great deemnd. Thus, some of the more refined drinks of the Mahabharata, patronized by women, for example, madhavi made from mashua flowers, and madhvasava from honey, occur in the literature of this period, specially in the medical works of Caraka and Susruta (Om Prakash 1961: 652). So also the date-wine Varuni, a probable import from Rome. The remains of Roman amphorae that fetched wine across the seas have been found at many sites of the early Christian era, even in Buddhist monastries at Devnimori and Negarjunkonda (Sankalia 1973 : 58). It was also druing this period that the sculptures

- 196 at Gandhara and Mathura came to be portrayed with boistrous Bachanalian scenes, in which women were very often depicted in a drunken state. The picture drawn by Karna of the Bahlikas and Madras, particularly their women, singing and dancing in drunken orgy in streets and public places, can probably be better co-related with the sculptures of this period, specially those from Gandhara in the North-West. All the three liquors, closely associated with these people in the Mahabharata gaussava, sauviraka and sidhu- occur in the medical works of the early Christian era (Om Prakash 1961 : 152). It is therefore, not in the least surprising, if the entire passage condemning the Bahlikas is a later insertion, for it does not fit into the main narration of the war. Some clever interpolator has used the incident of Karna's difference - of of - opinion with Salya, to give vent to his own feelings of contempt for the foreigners who had made the North-West their home by this time.