Archaeology and the Mahabharata (Study)

by Gouri Lad | 1978 | 132,756 words

This study examines the Mahabharata from an archaeological perspective. The Maha-Bbharata is an ancient Indian epic written in Sanskrit—it represents a vast literary work with immense cultural and historical significance. This essay aims to use archaeology to verify and contextualize the Mahabharata's material aspects by correlating epic elements w...

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Abbreviations used in the charts AV : Atharva Veda At. Br. Aitareya Brahmana Br. Up. : Brhadaranyaka Upanisad Kat. Sr. S: Katyayana Srauta Sutra Sh. Br. : Satapatha Brahmana G Sh. Sr. S.: Sankhayana Srauta Sutra TS Taittiriya Samhita Taittiriya Brahmana T. Br. YV Yajur Veda

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1- ( I ) Important Floral Species in the Mahabharata and Other literary Works ApproxiImate No.1 (Brahman l Pali Mahabharata (of times Rgveda \ Other Vedas Imentioned -as (Panini ( Litera- (Upanisa 1 ture in the * Mahabharata -ds Sala 42 Kimsuka 42 1 X.85, 201 I i.135, Fig trees 32 39 Tala 26 Asoka 15 Kadali 13 1 x.97, 8 1 I V. 5.5 AV iv. 37, 4 5 1 (xix. 31, 1 Bamboo 13 I iv, 58, 51 AV 1.27, 3 (Satapthal Amra 10 (Kathaka xii.10 Badara | 10 YV (Maitrayani iii.ll, 2 VIII.4.5 IV.3.152 Brahmana VIII.4.5 XXIV.7.1. 41 674 Jataka V.188 Sanyutta I.154 Vinaya II.188 Jataka I.111

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Mahabharata ( II ) GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES in the Mahabharata and Other Literary Works (Atharva-1 (Rgveda veda / Panini ( Pali Yajurved! 675 (Kautilya Literature krsan ( krsan | Mahavansa mukta pearls i.35,4 30,66 II. 11 x.68,11 AV : | Vimana vatthu X.I, 7 37 vidruma or Pavala pravala (Corals Jataka I.394 II. 88 IV.142 I Milinda-panha 267 II.11 vaidurya Iberyl IV.3.84] Veluriya cat's eye II.31.3. Vinaya Pitaka II. 11 II. 112 vajra diamond vajira Anguttara Nikaya. II.11 1.124 masara or Isasyakal masara marakata emerald (V.2.68 (Vinaya Pitaka II.238 indranila sapphire indanila Jataka 1.80 II.11

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Gems and Precious Stones in the Mahabharata and Other Literary Works (Contd.) Mahabharata sphatika rock crystal arka or Rgveda 1 suryakanta Sun-stone! galu or chandrakanta moon stone X 676 (Atharva-1 veda Panini | Pali Literature I Kautilya 1 Yajur- ( veda suriyakanta Milinda-panha 118 candakanta Milinda-panha 118 Sankha II.11 II.11 Sankha shell Digha Nikaya II.11 gem incrustation 1.79 Vinaya Pitaka II.156

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kirita mukuta mauli Mahabharata ( III ) ORNAMENTS in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Atharvaveda I = 677 (Rgveda (Panini Pali Literature 1 Yajurveda I la pointed! X tiara (a crescen】 -t shaped I diadem (a three pointed crown cudamani crestjewel kundala = lear-rings) manikundala = Ijewelled niska rukma hiranya la coin Jii.33,101 like gold vii.47, I piece 15 Igold discli.166.lo) torque iv.10,5 3 gold pielii.35,9 | ce 1 torque (v.60,4 kantha sutra | torque Jataka 1.64 Mahavamsa II.28 culamani Jataka V.441 I 1 Anguttara Nikaya I.254 nikkha Jataka II.444 I kanthasuttaka Vinaya Pitaka II.106

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Mahabharata Ornaments in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) 18 678 Atharvaveda I (Rgveda Panini Pali Literature I Yajurveda mala Inecklace I hara Inecklace sutta-nipata 401 strak (necklace liv.38, 61 mani (precious (1.33, 8 81 Jataka VI.265 stones angada (armlet keyura armlet kambu I Jataka V.9 I Dhammapada (commentary) II.220 shell bangle 1 Jataka IV.18 'parihatake' = = \ 'gold inlaid' kanci Igirdle X

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Mahabharata Ornaments in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) 679 mekhala girdle nupura I anklet mudra royal seal (mudrika) moj signet absent in the ring (anguliya) absent in the Mahabharata finger ring mukta jala la pearl net work) graiveya la heary gold I chain Atharvaveda I Rgveda (Panini Pali Literature Yajurveda AV:vi.133, I) 1 Jataka V.202 Therigatha 2, 268 (raja) mudda Milinda-panha 280-81 muddika Jataka I.134 IV.3.62 anguli-muddika Vinaya Pitaka II.106 【IV.2.96 X muttajala Jataka IV.120

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( IV ) FURNITURE TYPES in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works 680 Atharva-I RgMbh 】 veda (Brahman-( | Yajur- ) as Sutras Panini Pali Literature Iveda veda Upanisads asana la seat Jasandi lasandi asana- (Vinaya Pitaka or AV xiv. At.Br. asandi 1.272 chair. 2,65 viii.5 VI.2.151 TS vii. VIII.2.12 1 5, 8, 51 pitha la stool 1 manca or Ichair la couch 1 simhasana la royall throne padapitha la foot-I stool (Vinaya Pitaka IV.40 (Vinaya Pitaka IV.39 sihasana Mahavamsa 5,62; 25,98 Jataka IV.378 1 sayyasana la couch Sayyas sayanasana sayanasana Dhammapada VI.2.151 2.151 185 paryanka Ia couch! (VIII.2.22 pallanka Vinaya Pitaka II.163 sayya la bed III.3.99 seyya Anguttara Nikaya 1.296

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Mahabharata Furniture Types in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) 1 sayana la bed Atharva-Brahman- | Rg- I veda / I -as (Veda ( Yajur- Upanisa-) Sutras I Panini I veda ds. kurca la grass) (TS vii. (Sh.Br. seat 5,8,5 xiii.4, brsi (a grass) seat vistara (a grass) seat phalaka la wooden (bench or 1 plank 1 (VI.2.151 4, II (At.Br. (Sh.Sr. Sutra (xviii.4,7 Kat.Sr.S. xiii.3. I liao 681 Pali Literature sayana Vinaya Pitaka I.57 (VIII.3.93 Jataka I.304

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Tappro-I (ximate! in the (V) VESSEL TYPES Mahabharata and other literary works (Atharva- (Brahmanveda / \ as Mahabharata \times \ Imenti-I Ioned X in the Mahabharata (Rgveda I Yajur veda patra or】 17 la metal li.82, 41 patri I vessel bhanda I 17 la general term - 682 Upanisa- (Panini I das Pali Literature VIII. Patta 3.46 Vinaya Pitaka 1.46 bhanaka Vinaya Pitaka II.170 Kalasa Majjahima Nikaya III.141 kalasa 16 Ia water-i.117, IV.3.56] X ¡ pot or 12 Ipitcher I XXXX struk struva 15 (sacri- li.84,18) ficial i.116, laddles I 24 1 kumbha I 13 learthen (i.116. IVIII. jar or 17 3.46 ewer bhajana | 11 la gene- ¡ral term kamandalu site XXX 10 a gourdvessel 1 : Angultara Nikaya 1 I.130 Vinaya Pitaka 1.46 Sanyutta Nikaya 1.167

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Vessel Types in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) Tappro-I = 68.3 Iximate! Atharva- (Brahman-I Itimes I I veda / I as Mahabharata Imenti-I (Rgveda Ioned I X I Yajur- (Upanisa- (Panini ( Pali Literature veda in the Mahabharata ghata 8 la water-l (Vinaya Pitaka Jar 1.157 sthali 4 la dish kataha 3 (semi-sp- (herori- I Idal ¡caldron I with handles la bowl X kunda or karaka pithara I basin 2 ? 21 ? Vardha- 1 2 manaka a dish or I saucer XXX (AV viii.l 6, 17 IV.1.70] ITS vi. 5, 10, 5 thali Vinaya Pitaka III.15 lkunda kundi ¡Vinaya Pitaka II.122 kundi-ka IV. 1. Jataka 42 1.8 (Vinaya Pitaka II.302 (Milinda 107 panha

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jian 684 Vessel Types in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) \appro-I (ximatel Itimes I Imenti-I Atharva- (Brahman-1 Upanisa- (Panini | Pali Literature I veda / I as Mahabharata (Rgveda ( Yajur- 】 oned 】 veda I das (in the Svadratu 1 Mahabharata 21 1 I la skin - drti bag (of fi.191, (dog's skin) Saikya 2 ? alinjara | 1 la small earthen Iwater jar karaputa 1 1 (a chest or box 1 kudava 1 la measu-I re of Igrain khaja 1 la churn-l ing Istick X 10 drona I l la wooden vi.2, 81 Ibucket I or Itrough I drti IV.3.66 sikka Jataka 1.9 dona-donika Vinaya Pitaka II.120 Petavatthu IV.3

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Vessel Types in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) appro-1 }} 685 (ximate! Atharva- (Brahman I \times \ veda / I -as Mahabharata Imenti-I (Rgveda YajurUpanisa-Panini I Pali Literature Ioned I veda (in the 1 Mahabharata brigara 1 la pitcher or vase lohakumbhi 1 sphya darvi earthen I l bhinkara Vinaya Pitaka 1.39 Ian iron caldron (Vinaya Pitaka II.170 la flat sacriIficial stirring stick 1 la laddlelv.6, 9 I 1 IX.89, 71 IV.20. I (a clay Ikumbha) I 29 Sutta Nipata 577

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Vessel Types in the Mahabharata and other Literary Works (Continued) Tappro-1 686 Atharva- (Brahman-1 I veda / I -as Upanisa- (Panini | Pali Literature I das Iximate! Mahabharata Itimes I Imenti-I loned I in the (Rgveda Yajurveda wooden golden of silver! of copper! 'kamsya of iron Mahabharata (IX. 93,1) X (a (wooden & drona) ITS V.7, (IV.1.42)Vinaya Pitaka II.112 (Visudhimagga I, 3 142 T Br ii.2,9,7 (Visudhimagga 142 (Vinaya-Pitaka II.243

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( VI ) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS in the Mahabharata and other literary works 687 appro-I (ximatel Itimes I Imenti-I Ioned I | Atharva-(Brahmnas! X veda / X (Rgveda Yajur- Upanisa-Panini (Pali Literature X veda I das Mahabharata in the Mahabharata Sankha 120 (conchshell bheri 66 (kettle- I drum dundubhi 37 (Kettle- (i.28,5 1 drum mrdanga 33 i ta bor C anaka 】 20 (kettle I drum panava 19 Ismall drum turya 19 lan estorchest. ra (Br.Up. ii.4, 9 III.4.2 I Sankha Digha Nikaya 1.79 Angultara Nikaya II 185 Jataka VI.465 (Sanyutta Nikaya XXXX XX XX XX II.266 II.4.2 Digha Nikaya X 1.79 II.4.2 (turiya Vinaya Pitaka vina 17 lute Ts (III.3. I Jataka {vij,4, 1 65 III.91 venu 11 (flute I.15

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= 688 Musical Instruments in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) appro-I Iximatel I Atharva- (Brahmana! (times I I veda / I -S Mahabharata Imenti-I (Rgveda I loned I X I Yajur veda Upanisa- (Panini | Pali Literature das lin the muraja 1 Mahabharata 7 Itambori-I ne krakaca 6 (trumpet I pataha 1 6 drum puskara X 5 drum jharjharal 50 adambara I 4 1 drum (kettle drum Sh Br. XIV.4.8 I gomukha 4 (trumpet govisanika dindima X 3 = drum tantri | 3 I lute IV.4.56 Jataka V.390 Jataka 1.355 Jataka VI.580 (Vinaya Pitaka I.182

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Musical Instruments in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) 689 appro- (ximatel Atharva- (Brahmanal Itimes ( veda / \ -S Mahabharata Imentioned (in the (Rgveda YajurI veda Upanisa- (Panini | Pali Literature pesya 1 Mahabharata 2 I drum vallaki I 2 I lute nandivadya 1 drum ? I ghanta bells kinkini, kinkiniX jala Divyavadana 108 1 Vinaya Pitaka III.108 small X bells, I a net I work X (of thesel I bells Jataka IV.215 Digha Nikaya II.183 Jataka 1.32

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Mahabharata Dhanu Karmuka ( VII ) Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works 690 (Vedic Pali (Litera- (Panini Iture (Kautilya I Later Works (Literature 1 Bow Rgveda III.2.21 (Majjahima III.18.8 X I viii. 72, 41 Nikaya I.429 Sarnga [Horn-Bow! 1 Sara Arrow (Rgveda X XXXXXXX 1.119.10 Isu Bana Naraca (iron arrow IV.1.103 1 (II.18.8 (Sing-dhanu I Sarabhanga II.18.8 Jataka DighaIII.18. Nikaya 10-11 1.1 ¡Rgveda ii.24,8 (Rgveda Vinaya (II.18.10 I III.106 Maha-Bodhi I VI.75.17 VI.75 Vamsa 19 (Majjahima Nikaya I.429 II.18. 18. I (Bhasa: Urubhanga' Act I, vs. 2 10-11 Kalidasa : X 'Raghuvansa' I Canto 4, vs. 77 Samudragupta's (Allahabad Prasasti

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Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) Mahabharata Ksurpra iron arrow Ardhacandra (crescent) shaped arrow 691 Vedic Pali Litera- Panini X (Kautilya I Later Works ture Literature I ¡DighaNikaya 1.96 X Kalidasa : 'Raghuvamsa' 】 Canto 11, vs. 29 X Kalidasa : 'Raghuvamsa' 】 Canto 3, vs. 59 Canto 12, vs. 96 Prstka la kind X Silimukha of arrow Kalidasa : 'Raghuvansa' I Canto 7, vs. 45 Alina Copper-plate Grant of Siladitya IVII, A.D. 766-67 Bhalla Nalika Vikarna " Vatsadanta X Jataka III.220 (Vikannaka Jataka II.227 (Majjahima I Nikaya I.429 (Kalidasa : 'Raghuvansa' I Canto 9, vs. 66

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Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) Mahabharata Varahakarna la kind of arrow Salaka Iwooden arrow Vaitastika a smallIsized arrow Namankita Ian arrow) engraved with name 692 Vedic Litera- Panini X ture Pali (Kautilya I Later Works Literature (Bhasa: 'Urubhanga' II.18.7 18.7 Act I Tuna (Quiver Jataka II.403 Tunira " Jataka V.128 III.18. 10-11 Samudragupta's Allahabad Prasasti (Bhasa: 'Abhiseka' iz; Act I, vs. 17; ( 'Pancaratram' Act, vs. 18 Kalidasa : 'Raghuvansa' Canto 3, vs. 55 1. 'Vikramorvasiya' i Act V

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Mahabharata Sakti Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) 693 Vedic Pali Litera (Panini Iture (Kautilya ( Later Works Literature I Spear IV.4.59 | Jataka III.18.7 (Bhasa : 'Balacarita' II.153 Tomara " Prasa Bhindipala Kanapa Karpana Kunta Bhusundi = = = Act V, vs. 12 (Samudragupta's Allahabad Prasasti Digha Nikaya I. 226 (Bhasa: 'Urubhanga' Act I, vs. 2 Samudragupta's Allahabad Prasasti (Suttanipata jian 303 (Bhasa : 'Balacarita' Act I, vs. 12 Samudragupta's I Allahabad Prasasti Bhindivala Jataka IV.105,248 1 (Bhasa : 'Urubhanga' Act I (Samudragupta's Allahabad Prasasti (Bana: Harsacarita | Kanaya Jataka I.273 Ikanaya II.3.34

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Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) = 694 Mahabharata Vedic (Litera (Panini I ture Pali (Kautilya I Later Works Literature I Pattisa (Spike 】 Pattasa I II.18.14 8.14 Sula sua Trisula Itridant I spike ! (Sanyutta Nikaya II.18.7 V.411 II.18.6 Asi sword DAV IV.2.96 (Digha III.18.12 xi.q, I Nikaya I.77 Khadga Nistrimsa Danta-tsaru 1 Ivory swordhilts Carma [Sheild Parasvadha Battle IV.4.58 0 Axe DighaNikaya 1.7 III.18.13 1 Vinaya PetiII.192 carmo III.18.17

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Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) Mahabharata Vedic (Litera- (Panini ture 1 Parasu 】 Axe Rgveda Kuthara 11.127,31 An iii. 19,4 Kuddala 【hoe-likel weapon Gada ( Mace Musala I Club Sataghni (wheeled club Mudgara Ihammer Danda I (wooden) I Bolt Asmaguda, Sling asma, Balls pasana etc. (stone) Pali (Kautilya ( Later Works Literature I 1 Pharasu III.18.14 Jataka I.199 Kuthari Vinaya III.144 XII.18. 6 X II.18.14 18.1 (II.18.6 (II.18.6 11 | Jataka " I.113 Vinaya I.349 II.18.15 695

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= 696 Prominent Weapon-types in the Mahabharata and other literary works (Continued) Mahabharata Ayoguda (Sling Balls Yantrani ((metal) (Vedic Pali Litera Panini (Kautilya ( Later Works ture Literature I (Sanyutta Nikaya (Mechani-I I cal contrivances 【 V.283 III.18. 5-6 II.18.15 Cakra Discus 1 Jataka I.74 II.18.6 Kavaca (Armour Varma " Sannaha " Jala I Chain armour Sirsastrana Helmet I Kanthastranal Neek gaurd (Jataka (II.18.16 I IV.92 I Jataka II.22 Jataka II.443 (II.18.16 1 (II.18.17 (II.18.17 I Those of the weapon-types which are underlined are the most prominent in the Mahabharata, occuring with a regular frequency. The occurrence of some of these favorite arrows, spears in the Arthasastra, as well as in works dated to between the 1 st and the 7 th century A.D. is noteworthy.

Last Updated: 21 January, 2025