Chapter 13 - Vehicles in the Mahabharata

1. Chariot The chariot known as ratha or syandana is Yet the most frequently refered to vehicle. practically nothing is said about its size and its shape. Adjectives such as 'vipula' (wide) (VII.131. 26) 'mahat' (big) (VII.131.26), do not convey much and and are not even widely used. only tw exceptions, There are the unusually = 437

151. huge chariots of the raksasas Ghatotakaca and Alambusa, each stretching one 'nalva' in length (VII.150.12, 14). That chariots were made in different sizes and shapes and did not confirm strictly to any uniform pattern is brought out by such stray adjectives as 'bahuvidhan' and 'bahuvidhakaran' (of many different shapes) (II.47.29; VIII.14.43), and by the fact that they were yoked by a variety of animals, ranging from horses (1.213.41), asses (1.132.7) and mules (IV.21.11) to camels (IX.34.19), cows (XII.38.32-33) and elephants (II.48.29). At least two types are distinctly mentioned : i) Kridaratha, the sports-chariot and ii) Sangramikaratha, the war-chariot (XIII.53.27-29). Whether the difference between the two went only so far as the different uses to which the two were put or also to their size and shape can not be said with any degree of certainty. One thing is however certain that the war-chariot was always yoked with horses, either a pair or a team of four, while the others were more often drawn by asses and mules. The decisive factor in the choice of a horse for the war-chariot must have been his strength, vigour, speed and sensitive response. The horse-drawn chariot was also employed for 438

= 439 travelling (1.212.3; III.6.6, 57.18), but its use, wheather in war or elsewhere was almost totally restricted to the Ksatriya nobility, for whom it was a status symbol, a matter of prestige to possess a ratha more than any other vehicle. No other caste was privilaged enough to use a horse-drawn chariot. The reasons were probably economic than anything else for only the Ksatriyas could afford the high cost of making and maintaining chariots and horses, of employing charioteers and grooms. The Vamadeva episode (P.190.44-82) is rather interesting in this context. Sage Vamadeva possessed a pair of fine horses, which were one day borrowed by king Sala for hunting deer and never returned. When Vamadeva approached the king, he was told that such fine horses were of no use to a Brahmin. He should rather be content with a pair of white, well-trained bullocks. The sage tried to argue on the same lines, that for a Ksatriya too, there were other breeds of horses, besides the asses and the mules, but the king was not convinced. Thus the horse and the chariot were looked upon, from very early times, as the prerogative of the Ksatriya nobility. Chariots drawn by asses and mules were employed mainly as a swift mode of travel, generally by the lower hierarchy, ministers etc. who often happened to be nonKsatriyas and by women. Thus we see Purocana, Duryodhana's

= 440 minister ride an ass-drawn chariot from Hastinapura to Varanavata (1.132.7), and the Kaurava women fleeing the battlefield of Kuruksetra in mule-drawn chariots (IX. 28.70). Although it is not specifically said so, these in all likelihood were the Kridarathas or sports-chariots, smaller and lighter than the war-chariots and drawn in many cases by a single ass or mule. In swiftness and speed, however, they were no less useful than any other vehicle and so Dhrtarastra presented Krsna with a muleKrsna drawn chariot which could cover 14 miles a day (V.84.12). The Mahabharata also refers to rathas drawn by cows, camels and elephants. Yudhisthira entered Hastinapura as the acclaimed king, at the end of the mourning period after the Mahabharata war, in a brand new chariot, covered with woollen rugs and deer-skin and yoked with six white cows, while Krsna and the other Pandavas followed in their horse-drawn chariots. This is the only example of its kind (XII.38.32-33) and the peaceful entry of Yudhisthira with cows instead of horses, a symbol of military prowess, represented the heralding of an era of peace and prosperity. The idea of chariots drawn by elephants appears to be rather far-fetched, but king Drupada presented some to the Pandavas during the celebrations of the Rajasuya sacrifice. Though referred to as 'ratha' or chariots, these were more probably wheeled wagons of some sort or the other, drawn by elephants (II.48.29). The same must

be true of the camel-drawn chariots, which were used by Balarama during his pilgrimage from Prabhas in Saurashtra to Kuruksetra in Haryana (IX.34.19), and by Arjuna, when he set out with the Vrsni women from Dwarka to Hastinapura (XVI.8.33). In both these instances, at least a part of the Rajasthan desert had to be crossed and camel-drawn wagons must have been of immense help in transporting men, women and children and their belongings. The above account reveals that there were three distinct types of chariots: horses, (i) the war-chariot, drawn exclusively by (ii) the sports-chariot, drawn by asses and mules and used mainly as a speedy mode of travel, and (iii) the wagon-like cars, referred to loosely as 'chariots' and drawn by cows, camels and even elephants. The exact difference, however, in their size and shaps still remains undistinguishable. Of these three the war-chariot is the most conspicuous vehicle in the Mahabharata It has been described in great details and much can be said of the material from which it was made, its different parts and = 441

442 components and its rich ornamentation. Wood was the primary raw-material in the manufacture of a chariot, although the Mahabharata does not -anywhere explicitly refer to the wooden make of a chariot. On the other hand, there are constant references to gold chariots (kancanam, haimam, hiranmayam) (1.88.12; III.18. 1, 97.12; V.47.45) and chariots with gold components (kancanangam) (1.210.16; III.249.6). It is difficult to perceive a vehicle made entirely of the ductile and malleable gold. The main body must have been very much of wood but covered all over with gold sheets. The other metals refered to are silver and iron. only one chariot of silver, that of Bhisma (V.179.10), while the iron chariot belonged to the raksasa Ghatotkaca (VII.131.26-29). The rest of the Ksatriyas went about in gold-bedecked cars (1.190.15%; II.11.54; III.213.9; V.114. 48). There was A fairly good idea can be had of the construction of the war-chariot from the different parts refered to. None are described in any great details, but since these terms have come down from the remote Rgvedic days, they are all too familiar to be ambiguous in any way. The chariot as a rule had two wheels, cakra (II.54.4-6). The only exception was the huge chariot of the raksasa Ghatotkaca which had as many as 8 wheels (VII.131.26-29). Each wheel consisted of a rim and a

felly, together known as nemi (VII.35.32), the spokes ara (VII.35.32) and the nave nabhi. Into the opening of the nave were inserted the two ends of the axle, known as aksa (IX.13.14) and anukarsa (IX.13.7). (IX.13.7). To the axle was attached the main body of the chariot, kosa (VIII.26.56) which was divided into the fore-part, vandhura or bandhura (III. 230.30; VIII.68.24) containing the charioteer's seat, and the hind-part, jangha (VII.35.32). The inner part of the chariot was known as nida (VII.68.24), the warrior as adhisthana (V.179.10), while his seat was called talpa (III.231.5). Around the body of the chariot was fastened a wooden or metal ledge or gaurd, varutha (III.230.30; VII.42.59) as as a defence against collision. At right angles to the axle was the pole of the chariot, isa or kubara (VIII.17.110-111) to which was attached the yoke, yuga (VIII.17.110-111). The pole passed through a hole in the middle of the yoke, the pole and the yoke being tied together. To the either side of the yoke were harnessed the horses with the help of thongs, yoktra or yantra (VII.122.84; IX.13.14), the yoke being placed on their neck. The girth of the horses was called kaksya (VII.122.84), while the harness and the trappings were bhanda (II.54.4-6). The charioteer controlled the horses with reins, rasmi 443

= 444 (IV.48.13) and urged them on with a whip, protoda or kasa (17.13.143 31.34). Every chariot was fitted with a flag-staff, danda or venu (III.172.4, IV.36.40) so called because it was often made of bamboo. Atop the staff were placed colourful cloth banners, pataka (VII.87.57) and the metal finial, the emblem of each warrior, known as dhvaja or ketana (III.19.12, IV.50.19 ; VIII.87.57), which immediately distinguished his chariot from the others. Every important Ksatriya prince had a parasole, chatra, attached to his chariot (III.230.30). It was a symbol of royal power. as Some of these terms have been interpreted slightly differently e.g. jangha is understood as the axli-tree, while anukarsa as a loose piece of wood suspended at the bottom of the chariot and dragged along with it, either for quick repairs on the battlefield or as a ballast to gaurd against the overturning of the chariot or on the analogy of the modern bullockcart, a balancing support at the back when the horses in the front are deyoked. The explanation of a few other terms which occur in the context of a chariot in the Epic e.g. 'trivenu; trikosa etc. has also been attempted by scholars like Hopkins. Trivenu, literally a piece with three sticks, a triangular construction in wood, its one side parallel to the axle and the other two converging

on the axle-pole, was meant to give additional support and durability to the central pole. Trikosa probably refered to the three parts of the chariot-box meant for keeping arms (Singh 1965:38-39). This simple construction in wood was transformed into a glittering spectacle in gold, silver and precious stones, by the ingenous decorations of skilled craftsmen. The main body of the chariot, the wooden frame was enwrapped in metal sheets, mostly gold, sometimes silver or iron, making the chariot appear as if made of solid gold. At times strips and bands of gold or iron were fixed to the wooden frame (1.192.17%; VII. 122.78). Gold sheets were cut into small decorative pieces, such as miniature suns, lunates, stars, different animals and birds, fishes, lotuses and other flowers, to be stuck to the chariot frame (V.81.16-18; VII.2.27). Glittering jewels and precious stones such as pearls, beryls, corals, diamonds, emeralds, sun-crystals, moonstones and quartz-crystals were arranged in rows and decorative patterns on the body of the chariot (V.149. 57; VI.15.52%; VII.2.27; VIII.68.53; XII.46.33-34). Gold chains were hung all over the chariot (IV.65.12) and a favorite decoration was the kinkinijala, a network of tiny golden bells, whose jingling sound merged with the deep rumbling of the wheels (1.212.3; II.22.17; V.129.34; VI.22.9, 92.63; VII.150.11-12; X.22.12; XIII.53.27-29). 445

The kinkinis were sometimes replaced with regular bells (ghanta) (VI.122.80-81) or with a fine net-work of gold (V.129.21-22; VII.2.27). Some of the component parts of the chariot too were made of the precious metals and lavishly decorated. The varutha or the front gaurd of Jayadratha's chariot was made of metal instead of the usual wood or leather and studded with pearls, diamonds, gold and precious stones (VII.42.59). The flag-staffs were often made of gold or silver and ornamented with gems and precious stones (VII.87.57; VIII.26.56). The huge white chatra was likewise elaborately adorned and added to the beauty and the majesty of the war-chariot (VII.136.8). the Furry The chariot-seat was upholstered in tigerskin (II.54.4-6; V.81.16-18; VII.8.8%; VIII.26.56). bear-hide replaced tiger-skin in/case of Ghatotkaca's chariot (VII.131.26.29; VII.150.11-12). Ivory (danta) too was used, but on a rather insignificant scale in the ornementation of a chariot. The chariot-pole kubara, to which was attached the yoke, was sometimes decorated with gold and ivory (XII.52.31), while the chariots gifted by Krsna to the Pandavas are described as made of ivory (dantan) and held by gold bands (I.191.17). In describing the component parts of a chariot, the Mahabharata uses for the most part, the words of the Rgveda. 446

Thus the construction of the chariot had evidently not undergone any drastic change by the Epic period. = 447 The Rgvedic chariot was a two-wheeled vehicle of light wickerwork or of leather on a light wooden frame-work as in many ancient countries of the world. It was light and small with the shock of speed and monouevarability its greatest assets in war. It was yoked by a pair of horses and carried two men, the driver and the archer. The use of asses and mules for drawing the chariot was also as old as the Rgveda. The Epic car too was a two-wheeled vehicle . yoked by two horses, light and small, easily toppled and overturned and which could be pulled out of the morass single-handed by a warrior (VIII. 67. 67. 59, 64). There are, at the same time, quite numerous references to chariots yoked with four horses (VII. 87.54.55, 79.8 There is, however, no reason to believe that these two types, the two-horsed and the four-horsed chariot, were materially much different. Wheather the number of horses was two or four, the vehicle drawn by them was a two-wheeler to which they were yoked abreast. This is amply substantiated by the small two-wheeled chariots of Barhut and Sanchi (1 st-2 nd century B.C.), yoked either by two or four horses. However, there are certain aspects of the ornamentation of a chariot in the Mahabharata which are a novel

= 448. feature, not found in the Vedic literature. Firstly, the lavish use of metals, particularly gold was unknown in an earlier period, where gold was mostly used for personal ornamentation. Secondly, the presence of the entire repertoire of the Mahabharata gems in the adornment of a chariot is certainly a late feature. As noted earlier, all these jewels, with the exception of pearls, are post-Vedic in their literary contexts. They all came into the literary picture as trade and commerce picked up all over the sub-continent, but particularly with Cylone, which exported quite a few. gems, including some of the best pearls. None of these, therefore, can be dated to any period of time before the 3 rd century B.C. The closest similarity of the Mahabharata therefore as far as the rich ornamentation of a chariot goes is with some of the texts of that same period e.g. the Astadhyayi of Panini and the Jataka stories. Two other points of similarity cement the bond between the Mahabharata and the Jatakas, the network of kinkini bells and the tiger-skin upholstery. The kinkinis The kinkinis as a favorite decor for chariots, horse-trappings, flag-staffs and weapons, appear alongside the Mahabharata in Buddhist literature. Similarly the 'vaiyaghra' chariots, whose seats were upholstered with tiger-skin, were as much popular in the Jatakas as in the Epic. The earliest reference to a vaiyaghra chariot occurs in the Atharvaveda (Agrawala

1963: 151), where it appears as a status symbol during the ceremony of the consecration of a king. Even Panini mentions the chariot as a privilage of an important nobelman, while all other chariots had seats. upholstered either in cloth, woolen blankets or leather (Agrawala 1963:151). In the Mahabharata too only a few 3 449 important warriors possess a 'vaiyaghra' chariot, conspicuous among whom are Arjuna, Krsna and Karna (IT. 54.4-6; I-81.16; 56 VIII. 8.8; VIII. 26.). The gem-encrustion on the body of the chariot as well as on the flag-staffs and phinials is also a late introduction. It came with the Parthians at Taksasila in the 1 st century A.D. Therefore, these elaborate and ornate descriptions of the chariot and its component parts have to be understood as not earlier than the beginnings of the Christian Era. 2. Cart or Wagon drawn by bullocks. The next important wheeled vehicle was the cart It was known as the sakata and was used mainly for transporting goods. Whenever kings and princes travelled, their large entourage and their posessions travelled with them in bullock-carts. All sorts of goods, an entire market and even an entire

= kitchen on wheels, complete with cooks and varied food preparations, was loaded onto these carts and carted a over long distances (III.228.27; V.149.53; XIV.63.1-20; XV.29.20-23). war. The bullock-carts also had a role to play in Arrows were loaded on to them and carried to the warrior whenever he needed them (VIII.22.60, 54.16). Unlike the chariot the bullock-cart was not a Anyone who could prerogative of the Ksatriya nobility. afford a cart possessed one. The princes, no doubt, had a larger number of them, which at times they gambled away, a hundred at a time as Yudhisthira did (II.54.24). Yet not all laymen could afford a cart. In fact, very few did, and so the Anusasanaparva again and again recommends a sakata as one of the most prestigious dana for a king (XIII.63.19, 64.19, 65.3, 86.24). But Practically nothing is said about the size and the shape of a sakata. The normal cart must have been of wood, two-wheeled and drawn by a pair of bullocks. larger wagons yoked by as many as six bullocks at a time, and probably four-wheeled were also in use for carrying heavy loads such as a heap of arrows (VIII.54.16). A mythical cart, made of gold and fitted with as many as eight wheels was associated with Visnu, who is believed to be staying in it, on the northen shores of the Milky Ocean, wherever that be (VI.9.15-16). An 450

= 451 exactly similar wagon was the venue for the penance of the twin sages Nara and Narayana (XII.321.10-11). Thus as far as land transport is concerned, the chariot and the cart were the only two important wheeled vehicles. The horse-drawn chariot was for war, that drawn by asses and mules for travel and the bullockcart for transporting goods and possessions. applies mainly to the Ksatriyas. This As far as the other castes are concerned, the bullock-cart was their only means of travel and transport. Cows and bullocks were therefore, continuously sought for by Brahmins and others from their royal patrons. In the Vedas too, the cart or the wagon, is the only other wheeled vehicle known besides the chariot. It was a characteristic vehicle of godess Usas, known as 'anas', the word 'sakata' being of later origins, occuring very seldom in Vedic literature (Macdonell and Keith 1912:I.21-22, II.345). But already by the time of Panini the cart was known as sakata (Agrawala 1963:149). 3. Palanquins Another mode of transport for the nobility,

= 452 particularly the women and the aged, was the sibika or the palanquin. It was carried on the shoulders by men employed for the task, and is therefore, also refered to a 'narayana'. r Draupadi and the other Kaurava women travelled in palanquins all the way to the Himalayan hermitage where their elders had retired (XV.29.20-21, 30.12). Another prominent example is of the aged Dhrtarastra and Gandhari carried in palanquins into Hastinapura (XIII.38.40). Likewise Damayanti was taken home to Vidarbha in a beautifully wrought palanquin (III.66.21). In all these examples it is particularly the women who resorted to the sibika as the least arduous of all modes of travel. It is also likely that the palanquins were covered with a cloth curtain for the women to be secluded inside, although the Mahabharata does not refer to any such arrangement. None of the men seem to have availed themselves of this luxury. It was a very special honour for a person to be carried by others in a palanquin and was reserved for certain important occasions e.g. when the bodies of Pandu and Madri were carried in a palanquin before the last rites were performed on them (I.118.7). There is only one instance, on record, in the Mahabharata, of a king, the arrogant Nahusa, who forced a thousand Brahmins to carry him in a palanquin in a procession,

= 453 while he goaded them on with a whip. Nahusa had desired to assert his authority, both temporal as well as spiritual, and so took recourse to this deliberate humiliation of the Brahmins (III.77.8). On the whole, to be carried in a palanquin was not natural to a king. There are, however, many a references in the Mahabharata to 'yanas' (a general term for vehicles of any sort), presented by one king to another during svayamvaras (1.192.17), during sacrificial sessions and during royal coronations (II.47.28). They were also sometimes gifted to Brahmins by Ksatriya princes (III.29.10). These could very well be wheeled vehicles of some sort, but it so happens that they are often mentioned side by side with articles of furniture, such as chairs, couches and beds (1.132.14; III.29.10; IV.67. 37). In one such instance (II. 47 28 ) Dr. Motichandra (1957-59; 5) has interpreted the word as a 'sedan-chair', which has a sitting arrangement for one person and is carried on poles by two chair-men. this rendering of the word is accepted then we automatically assume that sedan-chairs, a variety of palanquins, was a very common feature in royal courts. But it cannot, however, be overlooked that not even once is a king or for that matter anyone else described as carried in a yana. The word is, no doubt, applied to a palanquin, but in all such cases is always preceded by • If

some such adjective as 'narayukta' or 'naravahin' i.e. yoked or carried by men (I.118.9, 124.11, III.66.21; XII.38.40), as against those wheeled vehicles which were yoked by animals. = 454 Water-Transport Water-transport was carried on by means of (i) ships (nau) (ii) boats (udupa) (iii) rafters (plava) and (iv) floats (prastara) There are many a references to ocean-going ships carrying merchandise, and 'nau is the only word used in the context of sea-travel (1.2.102; II.56.4; III.254.19; VII.1.28; VII.2.3), the others, particularly udupa and plava being small boats for crossing rivers and streams (I.115.14; VII.1.41, 21.8). The interesting thing is that all the references in the Mahabharata to ships and boats and to water transport, occur in poetic similes. None of the episodes revolve

= 455 around ocean-travel, nor do any of the Epic characters ever take to a boat or a ship. A few of the similes are quoted below to give an idea of their Epic context : - (i) "Like a ship across the ocean, Draupadi safely piloted the Pandavas through the crisis arising out of the catastrophic game of dice" (1.2.102). (ii) Draupadi threatens Jayadratha trying to seduce her: "Your grandly arrayed army will disappear like a ship loaded with rich merchandise when it sinks to the bottom of the ocean" (III.254.19). (iii) "The Kaurava army, without the stewardship of Bhisma was like a ship on the high ocean, tossed hither and thither by a strong gale" (VII.1.28). (iv) "The chariots reeled under the impact of Drona's arrows like small boats (plava) reeling under huge ocean waves" (VII.21.8). There are many others, but more or less on similar lines. The only two exceptions where boats were are actually used in the story of Manu and the fish, and in the story of Rama. Manu took shelter in a ship (nau) to escape the deluge that overtook the world around him (III.185.29). On the other hand, Rama abandons the idea of transporting his huge army across the ocean to Lanka

in flimsy boats and rafters. A large flotilla would have been the safest, but he could not have mustered one without obstructing the seafaring activities of merchants sailing to distant lands (III.267.28-29). Both these episodes are not directly connected with the Mahabharata story, nor have they any bearing upon it, and could very well have been inserted into the Epic text at a somewhat later stage of its development. The word 'nau' occurs as early as the Rgveda and is a regular for ship or boat in the later Samhitas. Some scholars are of the opinion that sea-voyages and sea-trade was on in Vedic times (Das 1925:149-150). Macdonell is against this theory of extensive sea-trade, which is mainly based on the mention in the Rgveda of a 100-oared ship in which Bhujyu was rescued by Indra. He believes that a majority of the boats were simple dug-out canoes for crossing the rivers (Macdonell and Keith 1912: I.461-62). The Mahabharata, on the other hand, clearly refers to sea-trade and expensive merchandise being carried across the ocean by ambitious merchants (1.2.102, II.56.4; III.166.2, III.254.19; III.267.28-29; VII.1.28; VII.2.1; VII.2.3; VII.21.8). A majority of these references are obviously concentrated in the Aranyaka (III) & the Drona (VII) Parvas. As pointed out earlier they are part of one or the other poetic simile and in that respect unnatural though not 456

necessarily late. By the 2 nd-1 st century B.C. extensive sea-trade had picked up along the west as well as the east coast sea-ports, which developed into a flourishing trade with Rome during the 1 st century A.D. These references might well belong to this period of hectic maritime activity, and are, therefore, not widely distributed in the Epic.