Chapter 11 - Musical Instruments in the Mahabharata

The Mahabharata mentions a large number of musical instruments, most of which were for use on the battle- -field. A few others occur as accompaniments to dancing and singing. They are listed below in their alphabetical order - 1 Adambara : Adambara : was a drum for the battlefield (VII.50.2-4), as well as for other occasions like royal weddings (IV.67.26). 386

= 387 2 Anaka: was a large military drum, played only on one surface. An oversized variety is refered to as mahanaka (VII.38.30). The anaka drum is very often paired with a smaller drum panava, in a regular dual compound 'panavanaka' (III.16.7; IV.67.3; VI.23.13; VIII.64.9). Evidently both the larger and the smaller were used concurrently and it is even possible that the smaller panav ava was attached to the larger anaka, and both were carried together. However, the two are not necessarily paired, and anaka is on many occasions mentioned alone (VI.47.23; VII.12.14; VIII.53.1; X.7.31) and vice versa (I.178.14; III.156.19; VI.17.16). 3 Bheri : a kettle-drum, was a very prominent musical instrument for the war-oriented music of the Mahabharata The conch-shell sankha and the kettle-drum music. bheri together constituted the two main props of Epic According to the Santiparva, whenever these two are heard one can be sure of victory there (XII.103.9). Bheris were sounded almost continuously on the battlefield, on every little pretext, sometimes numbering hundreds and thousands (IV.53.12; V.197.21; VII.170.13) a probable exaggeration, which neverthless indicates the unique position of the bheri amongst all other instruments. The bheri had become part of the superstition of war, its sound associated with victory

= 388 and its silence with defeat. If the bheris were not sounded at the start of a battle, it was immediately interpreted as a bad omen (V.141.9). So also if they happened to emit sparks while being drummed (VI.3.39). Bheris were put up on city-gates to warn the citizens of any impending danger. Three huge bheris, made of the hide of a powerful bull killed by king Brhadratha, were put up on the gates of Girivraja (later known as Rajgriha) and worshipped with flowers (II.19. 15-16). According to the Sangitratnakara of Sarngadeva, a Medieval text on music, the bheri had a body of copper 27" long, each of its faces measuring 18". It was played by striking with a kona or a drum-stick (Tarlekar 1972: 78). 4 Dindima: was probably a small gong-like drum (VII.166.58; IX.45.5). It can be identified with dindimi, a pastoral instrument of percussion, covered with skin and resembling a small 'khanjani' which is played and sung to by religious mendicants (Tagore 1912:3, 7). 5 Dundubhi : was a small kettle-drum, next favorite to sankha and bheri. Its sound is compared to the deep, resounding notes of the rain-cloud (1.212.32). It was closely associated with the sankha, and the two are mentioned together very often, particularly

= 389 when the war was at its peak (VI.16.223 VII.14.60). The dundubhi was also a favorite of the gods. There were many occasions when dundubhis were sounded from the sky to mark a great and happy event e.g. the birth of Arjuna (I.114.38), the svayamvara of Draupadi (I.178.14), the reunion of Nala and Damayanti (III.75. 15). The divines prefered the dundubhi to any other instrument, in order to express their joy at the turn of events on the earth. According to Sarngadeva the dundubhi was semi-circular in shape, huge in size and was made from with the wood of the mango tree. It was played a drum-stick fashioned out of strong hide twisted stiff (Tarlekar 1972:78). The present-day nagara played mostly in temples is akin to the ancient dundubhi (Tagore 1912:3). 6 Ghanta: Large and small bells of metal decorated chariots, elephants, horses and even weapons. The very tiny ones generally woven in a network, called kinkinijala, were a great favourite for decorating the body of the chariot (1.212.3; II.22.17; VI.92.63). jingling and the tinkering of the little bells must have been a striking contrast to the noise and the din of the battlefield. The The larger bells, which were known as ghantas, were tied around the neck of the war elephants (VI.92.

= 390 68; VII.14.45). From the singular which often occurs, it is possible to imagine that it was a single, rather heavy bell (VII.58.27, 29, 65.8) which produced a very rhythemic sound with every step of the elephant. Neither the kinkinis nor the ghantas can be termed as musical instruments proper, for they were not used to produce music conciously. They happened to add colour to the already existing music of the battlefield only incidently. There are, however, a few occasions in the Mahabharata when ghantas appear to have been used to produce music, if only to the accompaniment of song and dance. To welcme Krsna Mt. Raivataka was gaily festooned with cloth banners and ghantas (XVI.58.8). The attendants of Kartikeya made use of a network of bells, tied to their bodies as they danced (IX.44.107) and Kartikeya himself possessed a huge, white (silver ?) bell (IX.45.42). 7 Gomukha : was a trumpet, shaped like a cow's mouth at the upper end (IV.67.27; VII.58.2-4; VIII.7.35; X.7.31). According to Tagore however, it is a "wind instrument of the shell species; a kind of conch, some- -what resembling the mouth of the cow, whence it derives its name" (Tagore 1912 : 4). But whereas the conch or the sankha was one of the favourite instruments of the Epic Indians, the gomukha is hardly mentioned about four times.

8 Govisanika too was a trumpet shaped like a cow-horn or more likely a cow-horn itself blown like a trumpet. It is discussed along with another instrument krakaca as inseparably associated with it. 9 Jharjhara : There is no one opinion about the true nature of jharjhara. It has been variously described as a drum, as a pair of cymbals (Tarlekar 1972: 80) and as "a pulsatile instrument covered with skin" (Tagore 1912:6). It is not at all conspicuous in the Epic, the only interesting reference being to a Kancukin or a Chamberlain in charge of the Kaurava women carrying a cane-stick fitted with pulsating metal pieces (vetrajharjhara) (IX.28.69). It is likely that everytime he stamped the ground with the stick, the metal attachments shivered and simmered, producing a peculiar vibrating sound. 391 10 Krakaca or Krkaca : also refered to once as krkara was some kind of an instrument, played along with a group of other instruments on the battlefield, but whose, exact nature is not clear. It may be the same as the Rgvedic karkari which is believed to be a lute (Tarlekar 1972:7). It is mentioned hardly about six times in the Mahabharata, concentrated mainly in the Bhismaparva (thrice (VI.41.3, 42.4, 95.41-42). In five out of six references (VI.41.3, 42.4, 95.41-42; IX.45.5; XII.101.47), another peculiar musical instrument, the trumpet govisanika, is

= 392 mentioned along with krkaca. The two are never compounded like panava and anaka, but are present very conspicuously, side by side, within a larger group. It is indeed signi- - ficant that the trumpet govisanika never occurs in any other combination where krkacha is not present. Evidently they complimented each other. The other instruments mentioned in the group are mostly, drums of different kinds. It may therefore, not be very off the mark to identify krakaca as a blowing instrument, a trumpet of another kind sounded on a higher or a lower note than the govisanika. 11 Mrdanga: the tabor, was a great favourite. It was played on the battlefield along with the kettledrums (VI.42.4, 55.104; VII.18.20, 38.30; VIII.13.1; IX. 57.52), but at the same time it also accompanied such lighter instruments as the lute vina and the flute venu (I.214.25; XIV.58.11). It appears to have been customary to name the mrdanga, for the pair appearing as the emblem on Yudhisthira's flag-staff were known as "Nanda" and "Upananda" (III.254.6). As the very name suggests clay (mrda) was used in the making of a mrdanga. According to Bharata the fine black clay deposited at the river bank was applied to the drum-face to produce the required sounds (Tarlekar 1972:60-61).

393 12 Muraja: the tamborine, is much less conspicuous than the mrdanga. It is interesting that the two are never mentioned together in any combination of musical instruments except once (VI.42.4). On the other hand, the sounds of many other drums are often combined together. 13 Nandivadya: is mentioned only once in a group of musical instruments played in celebration of Prince Uttara's victory over the Kauravas (IV.63.23-24). There is no further mention of this instrument, but on the anology of Pali literature (Vinaya III.108) it appears to have been another drum, a joy-drum, equated with the vijayabheri or the victory-drum. 14 Panava: was a small drum but a prominent one in the Mahabharata As noted earlier it was closely associated with the large military drum anaka. . It was According to the prescriptions of Bharata, panava had a body measuring 16 angulas and the face 5 angulas with a hole of 4 angulas at the centre. thinner in the middle and was fastened all around with strings (Tarlekar 1972:63). 15 Pataha: was another kettle-drum which in the time of Bharata was made of either wood, copper or iron (Tarlekar 1972:63). It was also part of the super- -stition of war, so that it was a good omen for victory

= 394 if the patahas broke out in sound without the interven- -tion of any human agency (V.141.19), but it was a bad omen if they started emitting sparks while being drummed (VI.3.39). 16 Pesya : a drum, from the root 'pis', 'to pound' (VI.41.3, 47.23). 17 Puskara: too was a drum probably a small drum, for at a time a hundred puskaras were drummed together (VI.41.98, 53.27; IX.15.28). 18 Sankha: or the conch-shell was the most prominent musical instrument in the Mahabharata No other musical instrument is mentioned as frequently as the sankha is, and its nearest rival, the kettle-drum bheri does not have half as many references as the sankha has. The size and the shape of the sankha made it a very convenient instrument to be carried around by every single warrior, so that very often an innumerable number of sankhas were heard in all directions on the battle- -field (V.197.21; VII.170.13). Every important chariotwarrior posessed his own sankha, and the occasions for blowing it were many and varied. It was blown at the begining (VI.23.12-19) as well as at the end of the battle, in celebration of a victory (X.1.59), as a challenge to a chariot-dual (VII.131.8), in reply to the challenge and as an emergency cry for help (VII.85.38).

= 395 There were ways and ways of blowing a conch and accordingly the different notes were interpreted as of joy or sorrow, a challenge or a cry for help. There were professional conch-blowers, important members of the party of musicians maintained by each tribe participating in the war. At the very outset of the war, rules were laid down prohibiting the killing of these musicians, particularly the conch-blowers and the drummers (VI.1.32). The sankha with either the bheri or the dundubhi, both large kettle-drums, formed a constant background music to the happenings on the battlefield (IV.53.12, 57.18; V.149.65-66; VI.1.45, 22.22; VII.8.17%; VIII.65.1; IX.54.11). The other instruments joined in only occasionally. This is not to say that the use of the sankha was restricted only to martial music. It was used on many other occasions such as a royal wedding (IV.67.26), a coronation (II.49.17), a sacrifice (XIV.9.39), and as an accompaniment to song and dance. During the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhisthira when guests streamed in one after the other, the sankha was blown at fixed intervals, to regulate the flow of guests inside the palace (II.35.40). The sankhas came from the sea and are often refered to as 'jalaja' and 'varija' i.e. born in the water (III.15.20, 165.21; IV.41.2, 63.23). The Aranyaka- -parva refers to thousands and thousands of sankhas found

= 396 in the ocean (III.166.14). Arjuna's famous sankha, a gift from Indra, is refered to as 'varuna', belonging to Varuna, the Lord of the Ocean (II.3.2). The sankhas were all white (VI.92.64), white as * cow's milk (VI.41.10) or white as snow (VIII.68.56). Those belonging to important princes were inlaid with gold (V.180.18; VI.47.21; VII.17.8; XII.89.21) or were encased in gold netting (hemajala) (VI.115.17; VIII.7.10, 68.56). Each prince chose a name for his sankha. The names of those belonging to the Pandava brothers and to Krsna are mentioned in the first adhyaya of the Gita (VI.23.15-16). Krsna's famous conch was known as Pancajanya; that of Arjuna which struck terror into the hearts of the enemy as Devadatta, 'gifted by the god Indra'; Yudhisthira's was known as Anantavijaya, 'everlasting victory', Nakula's as Sughosa, 'of a beautiful sound' and Sahadeva's Manipuspaka. Bhima's huge conch was known simply as Paundra, 'comming from the Pundra country', adjoining modern Orissa on the eastern coast. , The In order to blow the sankha it was held in both the hands and raised to the mouth (III.214.25). broader surface touched the lips which were pouted as if in a gesture of kissing (VIII.68.56) and the sankha was blown through a hole bored at the apex. The larger the size of the sankha, the louder and the deeper the sound it produced.

= 397 19 Tala: according to Bharata were cymbals fashioned out of bell-metal (Tarlekar 1972:80). But the word tala also denotes rythm or the regular beat of music. The easiest way to provide the beat is by clapping the hands. It is difficult to say exactly in which sense the word is employed in the Mahabharata It occurs hardly about 5 times mostly in the context of light music accompanied by song and dance (I.201.31, 213.54; II.4.32-34; VII.50.11- 12, 61.17). It never appears on the battlefield. -ment There are 20 Tantri : the Indian lute, a corded instruwas known for the softness of its notes. only three references to a tantri (VII.50.34; VIII.17.7; XIII.115.13), but this is misleading, since the lute, better known as vina was one of the most favourite musical instruments of the Epic Indians. 21 Turya : is a very prominent musical instru- - ment in the Mahabharata whose exact nature is somewhat inderminate. On the anology of Pali literature (Vinaya 1.15; Digha Nikaya II.21; Jataka 1.58) turya (Pali 'turiya') stands for musical instruments in general, usually comprising of 5 kinds of special instruments (pancangika). In the Mahabharata they appear to have comprised of many more, for they are refered to as 'nanalingani' and 'satalingani', of a hundred different types. Thus the turya may stand for some kind of orchestral music. The sound of the turya was considered 'mangala'

== 398 or auspicious, and they were played to usher in victory (IV.63.23-28), when setting out for war (III.221.51) or to celebrate any happy event. They were probably the only group of instruments that were played on the battlefield (VII.14.9%; VIII.26.22) as well as off it, during weddings (1.176.18, 179.19) and to the accompani- - ment of dancers and musicians (VI.116.4; XV.4.14). 22 Vallaki: a lute, which went along with the more well-known vina, is mentioned only twice in the Mahabharata, both the times in the Anusasanaparva (XIII.78.26, 109.47) which describes the divine Apsaras playing upon lutes pan vina and vallaki and the flute venu. 23 Venu: the flute, made out of a hollow bamboo, read or cane, was also a close associate of the lute vina. It occurs most of the time as a duet accompaniment of the vina (1.178.14, 214.25; IV.88.10; XII.53.2-6; XIII.109.47; XIV.58.11%; XV.30.13). 24 Vina: the Indian lute, was an instrument of the guitar-kind, usually having 7 wires or strings (sapta-tantri) (III.134.13). It is believed to have been invented by the semi-divine Narada. In the Mahabharata too, Narada appears on the scene carrying a 'kacchapi' vina (IX.53.17) which has been described by Bharata as one of the subordinate types (Tarlekar 1972:9). Another semidivine figure, the Gandharva Visvavasu is also credited

= 399 with the fluent playing of the vina (XII.29.68-69). The lute vina along with the flute venu was mainly played for a softer and a sweeter kind of a music than that of the battlefield, with its conth-shells and war-drums. Ksatriya princes were woken up in the morning by the sweet notes of the vina and the Venu, intermingling with the singing of the women and the chanting of the Brahmins (V.88.12). Whenever the princes went out for a pleasure-outing they were entertained to the music of the vina and the venu (1.214.25; XIV.58.11). In heaven the divine Apsaras played on the vina, venu and the vallaki to the tune of their jingling anklets and sonorouse laughter (XIII.78.26). The army too in its lighter moments took to the vina and the venu (XV. 30.13), a usual evening feature at the camp after the day's fierce fighting was over (VII.50.11-12, 61.18). Out of a total of 24 instruments, only a hand- -ful are really prominent. The rest with minimal references to each, are almost lost in the vast bulk of Epic verses. The order of preferences is as follows : 1 sankha 2 Bheri 3 Dundubhi 4 Mrdanga 5-6, Anaka and Panava 7 Turya

The above 7 instruments formed the bulwork of music in the Mahabharata There were, however, two others, more suited for light music and which were as much a favourite as some of those mentioned above: 8 9 Vina and Venu 400 were played when men forgot about war and instead abandoned themselves to the joyous notes of the lyre and the lute. A glance at these instruments is suffice to show that there is a general pre-ponderance of drums or drumming instruments of all kinds. Out of 24 instruments, 12 are drums of various shapes and sizes, all used on the battlefield in a lesser or a greater degree, either individually or all of them together. The larger ones probably rested on the ground and were drummed only on one surface, the others strapped to the shoulder were drummed on both the surfaces. This great foundness for drums of all sorts is natural in the context of martial music, which requires the loudest possible din to rise above the tumult of other sounds on the battlefield to drown the music of the enemy side, but above all to infuse the soldiers with spirit and zest which only the frenzied beating of the drums can achieve. and On the whole the presence of such a large number of instruments is a testimony to the keen interest and the N

401 joyous sense of music on the part of the Epic Indians. No important occasion, be it religious, secular or military, passed without music. Two types of music, suited to two different moods can be distinguished: 1 Martial music : From the detailed description of the Mahabharata war that occupies a major portion of the Epic, it appears that every group and tribe participating in the war had its own troupe of musicians, to back them and to spur them on. Thus very often hundreds and thousands of bheris and sankhas sounded all at once. The moments for music on the battlefield were many as soon as the armies started marching, when they set the base camp, when the war started, during the warto encourage the soldiers or a car-warrior (like Abhimanyu), to break-through the enemy lines, to applaud a warrior who has performed a great feat of valour, to mock at retreating enemy soldiers, to issue a challenge to the opposing warrior, in reply to the challenge, to proclaim and celebrate victory, and on the whole to keep up the tempo of war at the highest pitch. An interesting aspect is that martial music was not restricted to war and the battlefield alone, but had become a part and parcel of the Ksatriya way of life, so that every occasion for celebration even during peacetime resounded with the sound of the conch-shells and the kettle-drums. Royal weddings, consecrations, and important sacrificial sessions were all occasions for martial music. The instruments chosen were the sankha, the turya and a

= 402 variety of big and small drums. This partiality for martial music must have arisen, to some extent, due to the natural participation of the soldiers in all royal events of importance, which demanded a show of military strength on the part of the king. But when Ksatriya princes like the Pandavas or Krsna prefer to be woken up, first thing in the morning, with the sound of the sankha, bheri and dundubhi (V.88.10-12, 92.4), the only convincing explanation would be that for the men of the warrior class music was represented by the vigorous drumming of the kettle-drums and the shrill cry of the conch-shells. 2 Light music : It would however be erraneous on our part to conclude that these men were total strangers to music of any other kind. In their lighter moments, when they forgot about war and pompous royal ceremonies, and gave themselves up to revelry and gaity, the instruments chosen to suit these relaxed moods were the lutes vina and the vallaki and the flute venu. The tabor mrdanga and the cymbals tala kept the beat. Such moments were mainly relaxed evenings, pleasure outings to forests, rivers and mountains and drinking parties. The Mahabharata projects a picture which is coloured by the life and doings of the warrior Ksatriyas. But it is certain that for the common man there were many more humbler occasions for music and celebrations, and it is not impossible that their music too was somewhat different from the martial tunes of the Ksatriyas.

403 Before concluding the discussion, it is necessary to say a few words about music in general, its other aspects and allied arts such as dancing. Music was not restricted to instrumental music only, but singing formed an important part of it, and as happens very often, song and music were accompanied by dance also. The Mahabharata describes two categories of professional singers and dancers, musicians and performers. To the first category belong semi-divine groups like the Gandharvas, Apsaras, Kinnaras, Siddhas and Caranas. Of these only the Gandharvas and Apsaras were prominent as singers and musicians of the gods. They sang, danced and played upon the vina, vallaki and the venu in the sabha-halls of the gods, (II.7.21, 8.35, 10.9-13, 23), on the mythical Mandara mountain (V.107. 9-10) and in the heaven to entertain the divine beings residing there. Their sphere, however, was not restricted to the divine regions only and they came down to the earth from time to time, to participate along with the gods in some happy event e.g. the birth of Arjuna and the other Pandava brothers. (I.114.48-49) or the inauguration of the Mayasabha at Indraprastha (II.4.32-33). There were many leading Gandharvas around whom were formed groups of performers. Citrasena (II.4.32), Visvavasu, an expert vina player (XII.29.68-69), Tumbaru, who led a skilled

404 party of musicians (I.114.43) and the twins Haha and Huhu (I.114.48), are all mentioned as professional entertainers. The Siddhas and Caranas on the other hand, were not singers and dancers. They generally appeared on the scene when a memorable battle, as the one between Drona and Dhrstadyumna was being fought (VII.135.19), to praise and encourage the warriors in their super-human tasks. Another semi-divine figure associated with music and the arts was Narada, who is described as an expert vina player, singer and dancer, although he does not perform at any stage (IX.53.7). Much more frequently mentioned and much more real is the presence of a large number of human artists specializing in various fields of arts. There were many different types of bards and panegyrists, Bandins (V.88. 16), Vaitalikas (IV.67.28), Sutas and Magadhas (V.138.26), the singers Gayanas (VII.61.15), the instrumentalists Vadakas (XIII.24.16), the dancers Nartakas (XVI.4.14), the actors Natas (VI.116.4), besides the courtezans Ganikas or Varas (IV.63.23-28) who were also trained in singing and dancing. Most of these professional artists were men. From many references to the effect, it appears that such troups or artists were looked upon as social hazards and their means of livelihood as improper (XIII.24.16, XII.283. 4). They were even equated with wild tribes like the

405 Svapaka ('dog-eaters'), Nisada (hunters) and Stena (criminal tribes who lived by theft), some of the lowest in the social order (XII.285.8). They were considered potential spies and traitors, with loyalties to none except their arts, and were therefore driven out of a city like Dwuka threatened with external agression (III. 16.14). A strict watch was kept, particularly during times of war, on all groups of professional artists, their dens and theatre-groups along with those of the courtezans. Despite this lowly position is the social hierarchy, we find even Ksatriyas and Brahmins taking to these arts, not professionally but as cultured pastimes. To cite a rather well-known example, that of Arjuna disguised as Brhannada, Brhannada, accepting the role of a music-anddance-master at the court of Virata (IV.10.8, 12, 12, 29, 67.3). He was expected to teach the women of the Matsya court to sing and dance. Exactly who these women were is difficult to say. Some were certainly the dasis who had to be trained as court-dancers and singers, but others were no doubt Ksatriya women, for the young Princess Uttara herself took the training under Arjuna (Virataparva). A spacious hall, known as the nartanasala or the dancing-hall was provided for the purpose, where lessons were held for the young maidens of the royal household during day-time (IV.21.3). Arjuna, though himself a Ksatriya prince had

been trained earlier by Citrasena Gandharva (III.45.6-7). Two other examples can be cited. Kaca, the son of Brhaspati and a Brahmin by birth, entertained Devayani with music, song and dance (1.1.77). Wheather he learned these fine arts from his teacher and Devayani's father Sukracarya, we do not know. Similarly the Brahmin preists of the Kekayas, a North-Western tribe, entertained their masters with vina-playing after the day's fierce fight was over (VII.61.18). Women artists were mainly confined to palaces. They were trained not only in song, dance and music, but also in the art of conversation and praise (stuti) (XII. 312.36). They attended on important guests who came to stay in the palace (I.201.14; II.52.35; XII.312.36), besides taking part in other entertainments (1.204.8%; XIV.91.39). Most of these women lived inside the palace itself as dasis and performed many other daily tasks of the royal household. They were looked upon as the property of the king or the prince concerned, a part of his material posessions, and the Mahabharata reports that Yudhisthira gambled away thousands of dasis trained in song, dance and music (II.54.14). Thus they exchanged hands from one master to the other, although their duties remained unchanged. In this context Kautilya's Arthasastra is remarkable for the insight it gives into the lives of various types of artists as well as courtezans employed within the royal-palace. 406

= 407 All of them were used as spies, carriers of secret messages and as intelligience agents against the king's own officers (II.12, IV.4). Thus quite naturally all such professional groups of artists were the prime suspects in any kingdom • and their movements and activities strictly watched and often restricted by law (IV.1) Courtezans were employed in the royal palace on an yearly salary and performed various chores from attending upon the king with the umberella or the fan to supervising the storehouse and the kitchen when old. The prime duty however was to sing and dance before the king right from the age of eight. They were thus bound to spend their entire life in the service of the king. Their status was no more than that of slaves (dasis) but with a provision to pay a ranson price for regaining their liberty as well as that of their sons. (II.27). The price of 24000 panas however appears to be too big an amount for a slave to collect and it is almost certain that a large majority of these women were content to live inside the royal household. Thus the life of the dasis as depicted in the Mahabharata and the strictures passed against professional artists in the Santi and Anusasanaparvas reflects very much the same society, rather the same kind of royal household as depicted in the A Arthasastra. QQ qqqqqqqqqqU! When one starts tracing the literary history of

= 408 these musical instruments, only four types seem to belong to a remote antiquity. The kettle-drums dundubhi and adambara are mentioned in the Rgveda while the conchshell sankha and the lute vina in the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda (Macdonell and Keith 1912: 1.368; II.316,350). All other instruments hail from a much later period (refer the chart). By the time of Panini, the smaller drum panava, the cymbal jharjhara, the tabor mrdanga and the orchestra turya had been invented (Agrawala 1963:167-169). However, almost the entire range of Mahabharata instruments appears in the Pali literature with only a few exceptions like the trumpets gomukha, govisanika, and krakaca, which seem to be exclusive to the Epic, but wherein also they are mentioned hardly a few times. Thus a majority of the instruments on a purely literary evidence go back to a period not earlier than the 4 th century B.C. Many could be even later since they appear in well-developed forms in Bharata's Natyasastra 2 nd century B.C. 2 nd century A.D.). The same variety of musical instruments as evident in the Mahabharata is seen in the sculptures at Sanchi (1 st century B.C. 1 st century A.D.). There are at- least 8 types of drums, of various shapes and sizes, some strapped to the shoulders, some hung by the neck, some held in the hand and some laid on the ground (Dhavalikar

1965:64-65). The most interesting instrument at Sanchi are the trumpets blown by foreign. looking soldiers marching in procession towards a Chaitya. The trumpets 409 are shaped like question-marks with the hooked ends having the appearance of a gaping animal-mouth (Tarlekar 1972:52), which resembles to some extent that of a cow. These could very well be the Gomukha trumpets of the Mahabharata QQQQQ a Archeological records are not of much help in the field of musical instruments, the primary reason being that most musical instruments were made of perishable materials like wood and leather. Only those made of metal, bone, shell etc. have a chance of survival, and as such a number of sites have reported finds of metal bells. Some of the interesting specimens come from Megalithic sites in Eastern Maharashtra e.g. Jaunapani (IAR 1961-62:34), Pauni (Deo and Joshi 1972:83), and Tekalghat-khapa (Deo 1970:52). At the last mentioned site a domical, hollow, bell-shaped object was discovered in association with bones of the equidae family and was probably the bell tied around the animal's neck or body. have also been reported from i Kaushambi Similar copper bells 400-300 B.C. (Sharma 1969:103).

ii Sambar (Bannerjea 1965:175) = 410 300 B.C. iii Kaundinyapura Mauryan Post-Mauryan 300-100 B.C. 100 B.C. 200 A.D. iv Pataliputra II V Vaishali IV (Dikshit 1968:120) 150 B.C. de 500 A.D. Sinha and Narain 1970:55) 300 B.C. - 600 A.D. (Sinha and Roy 1969:199) vi Hastinapura IV Early Historical 100 B.C.-200 A.D. (Ancient India, 10-11, 1954-55:18) As is evident from the above list of sites, metal bells came mostly from the Early Historical Period, from 400 B.C. at the earliest to about 600 A.D., with the only exception of Tekalghat-khapa, where the megalith burials as well as the habitational area is dated to 700-400 B.C. It is interesting that none are found in typical Chalcolithic and Iron Age sites, which are by no means poor in metal artifacts. Particularly interesting are the miniature copper bells, about 2 cms wide at the base of the cup, found at Kaundinyapura and which the excavator has tried to equate with the kinkinis of Sanskrit literature (Dikshit 1968:120). The only other instrument to be met with in archeological finds is the conch-shell sankha. It comes a

= 411 from a number of sites, but it would be ridiculous to infer that it was used only for blowing purposes. It occures at many sites more as a raw-material for shellbangles and shell-beads than as a wind-instrument. are listed some of the sites which have reported the finds of chank-shells: i. Mohenjo-daro Below ii. Harrapa Chalcolithic 2500-1760 B.C. (Marshall 1973:564) Chalcolithic 2500-1750 B.C. (Ancient India, 3, 1947:124-25) h iii. Navdatoli Chalcolitic iv. Rangpur IIA Sankalia et al 1971:431) Harrapan 2000-1500 B.C. (Ancient India, 18-19, 1962-63; 149) v. Vaishali NBP vi. Sanur (IAR 1957-58:11) Megalith 600- 200 B.C. 300- 200 B.C. (Ancient India, 15, 1959:37) vii. Kaundinyapura Mauryan 300- 100 B.C. (Dikshit 1968:123) viii. Nasik-Jorwe IIA Early Historical 400-200 B.C. (Sankalia and Deo 1955:142-46)

= 412 ix. Nevasa IV (Sankalia et al 150 - 50 B.C. 1960:539) X. Nagarjunkonda 1 st century B.D. 1 st century A.D. (IAR 1958-59: 8) xi. Brahmagiri Megalith IX 200 B.C.-50 A.D. xii. Nagara II xiii. Salihundan (Ancient India, 4, 1947-48:199) 3 rd century B.C. 00 A.D. 00 A.D. 9 th century A.D. (Mehta 1968:127) Middle Phase 1 st century-3 rd century A.D. (Subrahmanyam 1964:113-114) xiv. Taksasila (a) Bhir Mound ? Stratum III (b) Sirkap 2 nd century B.C. Stratum V (Marshall 1951: II.669) The sankha finds at the earlier group of Chalcolithic sites are mainly rejected cores and columellas remaining behind after the main body was sawn into bangles. Those found at Sanur and Perumbiar in Megalithic remains are mostly intact, with only the columellas

= 413 removed in some cases. That in both these instances (Chalcolithic as well as megalithic), the chanks are only the raw-material for the shell industry is evident from the large number of shell objects, particularly ornaments like bangles, beads etc. found in the vicinity. None appear to have been used for any ritual purpose. The chank specimens that are of interest for our purpose are those found at Vaishali, Brahmagiri, Nagarjunakonda and Salihundan. At Vaishali a small conch was discovered in a soap-stone casket placed inside a stupa. The casket contained besides the conch two glass beads, a small piece of gold leaf and a copper punch-marked coin (IAR 1957-58:11). Clearly it had a ritual significance and was put in the casket as a sacred votive offering. The context in this case is Buddhist, but at Brahmagiri it is megalithic, with a conch-shell found buried in a pit-circle burial along with gold beads and copper bangles (Ancient India, 4, 1947-48:199). The two finds are separated from one another by about 4 centuries and also a thousand miles or more. The conches from Nagarjunkonda and Salihundan are even more interesting in so far as they are inscribed with letters and pictures. One of the conches from Nagarjunkonda bears an incised cakra on a pedestal, flanked by an ankusa and chatra on either side (IAR 1958- 59:8). The location of both is very similar those from

- 414 Nagarjunakonda found in a temple, those from Salihundan found near a monastry (Subrahmanyam 1964:113-114). In all probability they were used as bugles and ritual objects. At Taksasila too there is a possibility that the species Murex (Chicoreus) anguliferus (Lamb), from Sirkap (stratum II), may have served as a trumpet for it does not lend itself easily to the manufacture of bangles (Marshall 1951:II.669). All of these finds are bracketed in the time a period 600 B.C. 200 A.D. At present the archeological evidence does not go beyond 600 B.C., but we have it on literary record from as early as the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda that the conch was used as a bugle or a trumpet even in remote Vedic times. The Mahabharata is probably the only literary text where the sankha trumpets are used for a secular purpose, on the battlefield and not in temples, monastries, shrines or on ceremonial occasions, in contrast to other literary sources as well as arch ecological records. Therefore so long as none of the conches can be identified for certain as bugles in secular contexts it is difficult to draw any conclusions. a The sankha, known in zoological terms as Xancus (Turbinella) pyrum is a species strictly restricted to Indian waters, occuring nowhere in Asia. There are several local varieties or sub-species, but the central or type form which is spindle shaped with a handsome, well-balanced

= 415 spire comes from the Kathiawar coast and the Gulf of Mannar. The Palk Bay to the North of Adam's Bridge and the Andamana islands produce two other varities (Hornell 1951:24). It is very likely that the sankha on Chalcolithic sites, came from the West coast i.e. the Kathiawar coast around which were situated crucial Harrapan settlements like Lothal and Rangpur. Slowly with the beginning of the Historical Period and the Mauryan domination, trade with South and Cylone gained momentum, so that there was a large-scale import of chank-shells which is very wellevidnt in a sudden spurt of shell objects and shell ornaments in the Mauryan Period. The extent of this trade can be gauged by modern statistical data according to which an average of 20 lakhs of shells per anum are fished out from the fisheries in India and Cylone, the number soaring to three million in certain years (Hornell 1951:26). A bulk of these finds are exported to Bengal and Eastern India whose artisans are skilled in shell-carving and where women of all castes fancy shell bangles. The Mauryan Empire too had its nucleus in Eastern India, in ancient Magadha, with sea-ports like Tamralipti in Bengal. The Mahabharata refers to these Southern contacts in the Sabhaparva where the Cylonese bring a gift of pearls, corals, beryls, and sankhas for Yudhisthira (II.48.30). However, as noted in an earlier section on 'Ornaments',

= 416 the Mahabharata is not much familiar with shell ornaments, bangles, beads etc. and in this respect it had probably not picked up with the Southern imports on a large scale. At the same time, we may not be wrong in placing all those references to sankha trumpets, ornamented with gold and each with a name of its own, to a later period which is marked by the inscribed conch-finds at Nagarjunkonda and Salihundan.