Chapter 10 - Utensils in the Mahabharata

A number of utensils are mentioned in the Mahabharata They are arranged below in an alphabetical order. 1 Alinjara, a small earthen water jar in which Manu kept the tiny fish he rescued, before it grew out-sized and had to be transfered to a well This is the only reference to an (III.185.11). alinjara. 2 Bhajana appears to have been a general term for any vessel, earthenware or metal (1.212.27; III. 197.31; XII. 287.23%; XIV. 64.11, 20). Iron, copper and gold bhajanas are refered to (III. 31.12; = = 366

= 367 XII. 221.59; XIV.4.24; XV. 34.13-17) while the ones presented by king Drupada to the Pandavas were orna- -mented with jewels like vaidurya (beryl) and vajra (diamond) (1.191.15). 3 Bhanda too appears to have been a general term for any vessel, earthen as well as metal, iron, copper, silver and gold (III. 47.14; IX. 34.31, 36.25; XI. 3.8; XII. 220.113, 279.10; XIV. 8.32). 4 Bhrngara was a gold pitcher or vase mentioned only once in the Mahabharata (XIV. 64.11-20). 5 Darvi was a laddle, carried by Bhima disguised as a cook (IV. 7.1). This particular laddle, probably a wooden one as the name suggests (from 'dru' = tree), is not mentioned anywhere else in the Mahabharata 6 Drona was a wooden bucket or trough, mentioned in connection with the legend of the birth of Dronacarya, who is said to have been born in a drona (I. 121.4-5). 7 Ghata was a large water-jar, generally of earthenware (III. 33.12, 263.22), but very often of gold when used on ceremonial occasions in royal households (I. 118.18, 126.36; XII. 29.118; XIV. 87.4). 8 Kalasa, a water-pot, pitcher or jar, used mainly by hermits living in forest hermitages, for

=== 368 fetching water from the river (1.202.18; III.100.10, 145.27; IX.49.18; XIII.70.4). A majority of these water pitchers (toyakalasa) in austere hermitages were certainly of earthenware. Only those gifted to hermits by generous kings like Yudhisthira (XV.34.12), and those used on ceremonial occasions (IX.44.18; XIV.71.10) were made of the sacred udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata), and of the precious metals gold and silver. 9 Kamandalu, a small vessel made either from the outer skin of a gourd or shaped like a gourd but made of wood or earth, with a round handle at the top, with which it could be carried in the hand. It was used as a water-jar by hermits and religious students (XII.308.47; XIV.45.20; XV.34.13-14), and was associated with the semi-divine Brahmin figure of Narada (IX.53.16) and with the gods Siva (XII.47.51) and Kartikeya (IX.45.45). With 10 Karaka too was a small water vessel, used by brahmins, religious students and ascetics, to carry their drinking water (1.181.1). It was probably shaped like a coco-nut shell, as hinted by medieval dictionaries. the Buddhist too, it was one of the 7 requisites of a samana, and was provided with a strainer to strain the water before use, in order to avoid injury to living beings (Rhys Davids and Steads 1922: III-23). 11 Karaputa, a chest or a box with a lid, is

= 369 mentioned only once (XV.64.11). 12 Kataha or Kataha, was a caldron of semispheroidal shape with handles on both sides. Katahas of gold were specially made for sacrificial ritual (XIV.8.74, 29.11). 13 Kathina was an earthen vessel for cooking or a strap or a pole for carrying burdens (Panini IV. 4.72). It was carried by the Pandavas when they went on a pilgrimage (III.91.26) and by Satyavana and Savitri to gather fruit picked in the forest (III.281.1). 14 Khaja was a churning stick, carried by Bhima disguised as a cook (IV.7.1). There is no other mention of a khaja in the Epic. 15 Kudava was a measure of wood or iron, for According measuring saktu or barley grains (XIV.93.10). to some it was a vessel, four fingers wide and as many deep, and containing 12 handfuls of grain; according to others it was a finger and a half deep and three fingers each in length and breadth (Williams 1899:289): 16 Kumbha was a jar, pitcher, ewer, mainly for carrying and storing water (III.2.24) but also for storing other liquids such as liquor (III.25.3). The larger ones were used for storing water in places like the delivery-room of a pregnant woman e.g.

= 370 when Uttara gave birth to Pariksit (XIV.64.4), and near the bedside of a sick person e.g. when Bhisma lay dying from wounds sustained in the battle (VI.116.11). These larger ones with stored water were looked upon as auspicious, and it was, therefore, customary to touch a water-filled kumbha first thing in the morning (VII.58.19-20), as well as to display them prominently on city-gates when a king made his triumphant entry (XII.38. 48). Smaller kumbhas were used for drinking out of them (III.154.18) and to pour out water to wash hands and to bathe (VII.58.8). For the royal households they were often made of gold and silver (VII.58.8), but not exclusively so. On both the occasions when Karna had to undergo a ceremonial bath, either as the King of Anga (V.138.14) or as the commander of the Kauravas (VIII.6. 37), earthen kumbhas were used side by side with gold and silver ones. Some of the kumbhas were also made of wood, particularly the sacred Udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata) (XII.40.10). A Majority, however, were of earthenware so that Draupadi nagging Bhima to kill Kicaka says: "smash him like a kumbha against a stone" (IV.20.32). 17 Kunda was a bowl or a basin, rather deep, for it was used mainly as a storing vessel. Gandhari's embreyo, split into a hundred portions, was stored in a

hundred different kundas filled with medicinal ghee (I.107.18). Likewise, the gold niskas in Yudhisthira's posession were kept sealed in a hundred kundas (II.54.2). There is no mention of a lid for these hollow basins. 18 Lohakumbhi was an iron 'kadhai' in which 371 oil was kept boiling in the region of Hell. It is portray- -ed as a torture device and sinning souls were supposed to be thrown into this boiling cauldron (XVIII.2.24). 19 Patra or patri was a metal vessel, and from the references in the Mahabharata was also a serving vessel. The word, in all likelihood, is derived from 'patra', a thin sheet or plate of metal, particularly gold. Gold patras were used in the palace of Drupada (I.186.13), in the palace of the Pandavas at Indraprastha (III.28.15), and during the sacrificial feast of Yudhisthira (II.45.18) and Rantideva (XII.29.11) to serve food to thousands of guests at a time. Some of the expensive specimens were studded with diamonds (XII.165. 14). The eatables served in these vessels were mainly liquids, often sticky liquids such as curds (VIII. 1.11), ghee (V.141.30; VIII.1.11), honey (XII.165.14), the rice 'kheer' payasa (V.141.30) and oil (XII.304.22). Besides gold, kamsya or copper too, was used in the making of patras (IV.63.47). These metal vessels

= 372 were generally in the possession of princes, but were often generously gifted by them to Brahmins and ascetics living in hermitages (VIII.1.11 XII.165.45; XIV.91.24; XV.34.13-14). 20 Pitharas of gold were made for the Asvamedha sacrifice of Rantideva (XII.29.118) and were also gifted to ascetics by Yudhisthira (XV.34.13). No details of any peculiar shape or any particular use are forthcomming. 21 Svadratu has been described as a dog's bladder, but was probably a pouch or a bag made of animal hide, in this case a dog's. It is however difficult to say wheather it was ever actually used to carry or to store any substance. The Mahabharata compares the bestowing of the Kuru kingdom upon Duryodhana, to the placing of milk in a svadratu (III.34.78). The other reference too is similar (XII.37-35), and we may conclude from both, that at least milk and such other food-articles were never carried in skin-bags. This is very much in contrast to the use of skin-bags known as drti in the Vedas and in fluids Panini to hold/like milk and liquor (sura), transported over long distances on the backs of pack.animals (Agarawala 1963:145-47). 22. Sphya was a particular implement used in sacrifice, generally a flat piece of wood shaped like a sword, for stirring the offering of boiled rice. For

= = 373 the Asvamedha sacrifice of Yudhisthira the sphyas were specially made of gold (XIV.71.10). 23 Sthali was an earthen dish or pan used as a cooking vessel (XIII.94.10). An offering of boiled rice, cooked in a sthali was well-known as 'sthali-paka' (III. 222.32). Sthalis of gold were used for serving food in the palace of Rantideva (XII.29.118). laddles. 24 Struk and Struva were both sacrificial Struk was a large wooden laddle for pouring out ghrta on the sacrificial fire. It was as long as an arm with a receptacle at one end. Struva was a small wooden laddle, made of Udumbara (Ficus glomerata) wood (XII.40.11) and with receptacles at both the ends. Both these laddles were strictly sacrificial implements not used in daily cooking. In the Mahabharata too both laddles are restricted to sacrificial use (1.33.22; III.209.6, 253.18) and are always mentioned in association with forest hermitages and ascetics living there (1.202.18; III.100.10, 111.21, 111.21, 145. 27%; XV.34.12). The smaller laddle struva is somehow, closely associated with lord Siva who is at least thrice referred to as "Struvahasta" i.e. carrying a struva laddle in his hand (VII.173.27, 35: XIV.8.20).

374 25. Vardhamanaka, a dish or saucer, were made of gold for Yudhisthira's Asvamedha sacrifice (XIV.71.10). 26 Visana. The tusks of an elephant and the horns of a rhinocerous and a bull were used as 'watersprinklers' when Karna was consecrated as the Commander of the Kaurava forces. These 'horn-cups' were ornamented with pearls and precious stones (VIII.6.37). This is the only reference of its kind in the Epic. a As can be seen from the above account it is almost impossible to imagine the exact shape of vessel in most cases. As far as their make is concerned it is obvious that a large number were made entirely of earthenware. Even royal households made use of them. Earthenware pitchers played an important role on ceremonial occasions and earthenware jars filled with water were considered auspicious. Metal vessels were also much in vogue, and since the picture in the Mahabharata is that of the aristocratic Ksatriyas, vessels of gold were not uncommon. Some were even ornamented with jewels like diamonds and beryls. The metal type frequently referred to is a milking vessel called 'kamsya', made of copper. It generally went with a cow as a gift to a Brahmin (II.49.3; XIII.57.30). Kamsya vessels were also a favorite for keeping wine (II.45.26; IV.14.17). In some cases these

copper vessels were either gilded with gold (IV.63.47) or had a lid made of gold (IV.14.17). -sions. Gold was an equally favorite metal, but was restricted to royal households and for ceremonial occaServing vessels of gold and small gold ewers for bathing etc. were quite common in royal palaces, and they exchanged hands only when kings gifted them away to Brahmins and ascetics. The range of gold vessels was very wide and almost every shape that occurs in the Mahabharata, was manufactured in gold. Silver vessels on the other hand were rather rare. Only three types, kalasa, kumbha and bhanda were made in silver. The only other metal used was iron, refered to as 'loha', 'ayasa' and 'asmasara'. 'Loha' and 'ayasa' may refer to copper also, which is however, more expli- -citly denoted by 'kamsya' and 'tamrayasa' i.e. the red metal. Vessels made of iron were distributed by Yudhisthira amongst ascetics and hermits (III.31.12) and by Balarama amongst Brahmins at various holy places (IX.36.25). A few wooden vessels too occur in the Mahabharata, all from the wood of the sacred Udumbara wood (Ficus glomerata). Two shapes namely kalasa and kumbha, both water-pitchers or water-jars of varying sizes, were made of Udumbara wood. Other wooden vessels were the bucket- 375

376 like drona, the sacrificial laddles struk and struva and the cooking laddle darvi. The process involved in the manufacture of metal and wooden vessels finds no mention in the Epic, but a rather long-drawn-out simile gives some idea of the stages through which an earthen pot had to pass before it came out in its final shape and form (XI.3.8-11). At the end of the Mahabharata war Dhrtarastra lamenting the death of his sons, relatives and freinds, is consoled by Vidura who points out that in this world not every living being reaches a ripe old age. Some die at birth, others within a few days or months of their birth, some in childhood, others in full youth and the rest in their middle and old age. The point is made clear on the anology of earthen pots in a potter's workhouse, where some pots break on the wheel itself, some while being shaped, others after the shaping is completed. Some are samshed while they are kept covered on the wheel, others while being taken down from the wheel. Some crack when they are wet, some when dry, some while they are being baked, some when taken out of the oven and others after being baked in conditions of inadequate heat. Out of the remaining some split while being polished. Thus only a few pots survived the long process from being shaped on the wheel to being baked in an oven, and finally polished. Another rather interesting event which deserves

= 377 notice is a reference to an expedition led by Yudhisthira to the foot of a mountain, where a particular spot was known for a treasure-trove, buried underground by a king named Marut (XIV.64.11-20). After propitiating Lord Siva, whose ganas were believed to be gaurding the treasure, the area was throughly dug, resulting in the find of three million vessels of all types and shapes, which were sealed in a huge chest. Yudhisthira had to press into action sixty thousand camels, double the number of horses, one thousand elephants, carts, chariots and coolies to carry the load to Hastinapura. The treassuretrove was more than ample to meet the needs of a grand Asvamedha sacrifice. Unfortunately the Mahabharata does not indicate the exact location of the spot. kukukukukukukukukukukukukukuku The important vessel types which are mentioned frequently in the Mahabharata date back from the Vedic Period, some going back even to the Rgveda (refer the chart). The exceptions bhanda, bhajana and ghata, the Mahabharata has in common with Pali literature. A few other types too appear concurrently in Pali literature. That they are new to the Mahabharata is evident from the fact they are mentioned hardly once or twice. These types are the golden pithara,

the caldron kataha, known today a 'kadhai', the bowl karaka, the small earthen water-jar alinjara and the vase bhrngara. Similarly the concept of a lohakumbhi, an iron caldron for boiling oil, as a torture device of Hell, is found in the Jatakas too, where the word occurs as the name of a particular region of Hell (Vinaya Pitaka II.170). 378 The same holds good for all those jewel-incrusted metal vessels which are unknown to the literature of a period prior to Pali literature. Vessels of earthenware, gold, silver, copper and wood occur from the early Vedic Period, those of iron from the post-Vedic Sutra Period, but not so the 'jewelled ones'. The touch of rich finery comes in only at a later stage, in the Epic and the Buddhist literature. The distribution of these later types in the Mahabharata is mainly restricted to Parvas I (Adi), III (Aranyaka), XII (Santi) and XIV (Asvamedhika). The other parvas refer to these later types only sporadically. that :Thus on purely literary evidence we can say (i) the Mahabharata repertoire of vessels is predomi- - nently Vedic, and therefore prior to 800 B.C.%;B (ii) a few later types which occur in the Pali literature also, and therefore, are post-500 B.C. have started creeping into the Epic text, but are not very

prominent; (iii) a majority of the parvas are relatively free of these late additions. <<<<<<<<<<<<<<< 379 a The archeological evidence as regards pottery is immense. These are mostly earthenware, each culturephase being characterized by its distinctive pottery e.g. the Painted Grey Ware Culture (PGW) or the Northen Black Polished Ware Culture (NBP). vessels. Some of the vessel types of ancient literature can possibly be identified with similar ones brought to light in excavations, but as there is no sound base to substantiate these claims, the attempt should be regarded as futile. This immense mass of evidence, therefore, is unfortunately not of much use for our present study. It is, however, a different story for metal Gold vessels refered to right from the Rgveda have not so far appeared at any excavated site, probably too precious to be left behind when a site was deserted or destroyed. Descriptions of a large number of gold vessels in literature are therefore likely to be grossly exaggerated, if not altogether fanciful, particularly in texts like the Mahabharata where references to gold articles appear mostly in connection with pompous royal ceremonies, sacrificial sessions, lavish gifts to Brahmins etc.

= 380 a However, the absence of gold vessels in archeological records is not a full-proof of their nonexistence, for such vessels have been reported in beautiful shapes and intricate designs from very ancient sites outside India, in Iran, Iraq, and Egypt. There is every possibility that the ruling classes in India too were in possession of such precious artifacts, which due to some unfortunate circumstances have not been left behind for posterity. We are more fortunate as regards silver vessels which occur at three important sites, which are however separated from each other by an immense time-gap. Between the silver vases found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa (for keeping jewellery) (Marshall 1931:493) and the silver vessels from Taksasila there are intervening 15 centuries. There can, therefore, be no possibility of a continuous tradition, particularly since nothing by way of silver vessels has come to light in the intermediate period. The Taksasila finds are the richest haul of silver vessels in Indian archeology. They come in a variety of shapes, such as jugs (plain and with vined handles), scent-flasks, goblets, bowls, cups, dishes, plates, rectangular trays on legs, laddles, spoons, and strainers. A majority of these occur in phase II-III at Sirkap, dated to the 1 st-3 rd centuries A.D. and characterized by the late Shaka-Parthian finds. a In any

= 381 case none occur before phase IV (Early Shaka) dated to the 1 st century A.D. All of them bear a clear impress of foreign Greek and Scythian influence (Marshall 1951: 612-14). This is not at all surprising for during this period costly silver vessels were being imported as presents for Indian kings at Barygaza (modern Broach and the Bharukaccha of the Mahabharata) and silver and gold plates at Barbaricum at the mouth of the Indus, the sea outlet of the Parthian kingdom (Schoff 1912: 286-287). Copper, bronze and iron vessels were always more numerous than those of the precious metals, gold and silver, wheather in literary records or by way of actual finds. The earliest finds of copper-bronze vessels are from Mohenjo-daro and Harrapa, but here again arises the same problem. There are an intervening thousand years between the Indus Valley finds and those of the Early Historical Period in North India. The archeological map of the period in between is dotted with very important Chalcolithic and Iron Age sites all over Northern and Central India, as well as the Deccan. These settlements have brought to light a large variety of metal artifacts and ornaments, but surprisingly no metal utensils. It is indeed significant that after Mohenjo-daro and Harrapa metal utensils (wheather silver, copper, bronze or iron) reappear on the Indian sene only around 500 B.C. at the earliest. Some of the sites that have reported finds of

metal vessels are = 382 Tekalghat Khapa 700-400 B.C. (Deo 1970: 46, 103-4) Nagda III 500-200 B.C. (Bannerjea 1965: 173) Sambhar 300 B.C. (Bannerjea 1965: 175) Nagra II III 300 B.C.- 00 A.D. 00 A.D.-800 A.D. (Mehta 1968 : 113) Kayatha V 200 B.C.-600 A.D. (Ansari and Dhavalikar 1975 : 151) Pataliputra II 150- 50 B.C. Nevasa IV V h Vaisali III Taksasila (Sinha and Narain 1970: 56) 150- 50 B.C. 50 B.C.-200 A.D. (Sankalia et al 1960 : 421) 100-300 A.D. (Sinha and Ray 1969: 198) Bhir Mound II Mauryan Sirkap I Early Shaka Sirkap II-III Late ShakaParthian Sirkap IV-V Greek (Marshall 1951 : 540-43; 588-96; 611-14)

= 383 As can be seen from this list the only probable exception is of the megalithic burials of Tekalghat Khapa near Nagpur in Maharashtra. As the problem of the chronology of the megaliths all over Deccan and South India is somewhat controversial, this evidence, however interesting can not be the basis for any assumption at all. All other finds of metal utensils assume propor- -tions only from the Mauryan period and later. As far as literary evidence goes copper-bronze vessels were in vogue from very early Vedic Period, though not widely used (Macdonell and Keith 1912 : I- 130). Those of iron came on the scene much later, in post-Vedic Sutra Period (600 B.C. and later) (Apte a 1939 : 62). This literary fact has a sound archeological foundation, for the use of iron in excavated evidence does not go beyond 800-900 B.C., and became widespread only in the NBP Culture-phase, dated to 500-200 B.C. a Thus the archeological evidence coupled with 9000 the literary one does not leave much of a choice. It is obvious that metal utensils wheather of copper, bronze, iron or silver became part and parcel of the repertoire of household objects from about 300 B.C. onwards. We may, therefore, credit the references to them in the Mahabharata to this period of Indian history and not any earlier. At least, for the present, there is no evidence to do otherwise.

= 384 Another important point to note is the art of gem-incrustation which was of Parthian origins in India and was revealed for the first time at Taksasila around the 1 st century A.D. Therefore as noted in an earlier section on 'Ornaments' any metal object encrusted with gems belongs generally to the Christian Era and not earlier. This is more than confirmed by the finds of certain silver dishes, known as Paterae in Greek, bearing a repousse design and encrusted with gems and paste at Taksasila-Sirkap (II-III) in late Shaka-Parthian layers. These are the only examples of its kind as far as actual finds are concerned, and are dated to 100-300 A.D. Another interesting vessel type of this period is the drinking horn or the rhyton of the Greeks, borrowed later by the Romans, and depicted in the sculptures at Gandhara and Nagarjunakonda. These drinking horns were generally fitted with silver and during the imperial Roman period often embellished with finely cut gems (K. Krishna Murthy 1974:98). The Mahabharata in one solitary instance noted earlier (VIII.6.37), describes elephanttusks and rhino and cattle-horns used as 'water-sprinklers' and probably drinking-cups, ornamented with pearls and precious stones.

Conclusions ( i) Literary evidence has amply demonstrated that (ii) (iii) the common vessel types in the Mahabharata were predominently Vedic and therefore earthenware. It were the metal types that came to be incorporated into the Epic text at a later date, around 300 B.C. and later. This is particularly true of those metal types that were encrusted with gems and precious stones. They date to a still later period, to the early Christian Era, and are therefore, hardly conspicious in the Epic. = 385