Chapter 6 - Coiffures and Cosmetics (as reflected in the Mahabharata)

The Mahabharata does not end to elaborate on the hairstyles of either men or women. The information one can extract on the subject is therefore a small nothing compared to the huge bulk of the Epic. Coiffure for men Black and curly hair were looked upon as the ideal type (VII.82.7, 102.35, 121.36). Men, on the whole, had long hair, held in place by a turban or a crown. Some of the early sculptural representations reveal that they were = 243

either held in curly locks on the neck, or put up in a knot on top of the head. During duals fought at close quarters, as those with the mace, the hair were generally tied at the back with a strip of cloth or a ribbon, fastened around the forehead like a fillet, to ward off the hair from comming onto the face (II.21.6; VIII.66.19; IX.31. 52). - 244 Not all men, however, kept long hair. The Kamboja tribesmen from the North-West had clean-shaven heads (munde) (VII.95.21, 40). Some other tribes too followed the same practice. They are referred to as Mlecchas and Dasyavas, outcastes from the Aryan tribal structure (VII.68.44, 95.36, 40). On the other hand, the infantry soldiers of the Andhra tribe from the South, were marked apart from the others due to their long stresses (dhirghakesa) (VIII.8.18). A rather curious incident brings out effectively the great abhorrence felt by the Mahabharata Indians for the practice of shaving-off the head. One day, Jayadratha, passing through the Kamyaka forest, came across a lonely Draupadi and carried her away forcibly in his chariot. Relentlessly pursued by Bhima and Arjuna, he was finally captured. Death would have been the normal penalty for any other offender, but the merciful Yudhisthira spared the life of his brother-in-law. As the next best punishPOONA & LIBRARY

= 245 -ment, Bhima took a razor-sharp ardhac andra' arrow and shaved off Jayadratha's head, leaving only five strands as a mark of his having become a slave of his captors. This rather simple penalty tormented Jayadratha more than any physical torture he might have had to endure. Thus it appears that although clean-shaving of the hair was a fashion amongst 1) foreigners (mlecchas), ii) non-Aryans (dasyavas), and iii) certain tribes of mixed origines (Kambojas), it was looked down upon by the Mahabharata Indians who forced men like Jayadratha, responsible for some grave offence to shave their head, as a punishment and as a humiliation. Against this background references to Siva as 'munda' and 'mundavaktra' i.e. with a clean-shaven head, are rather interesting. His ganas as well as those of his on Kartikeya are often described as 'munda'. At the same time, they are also 'sikhandins' i.e. with their hair knotted on top of their head. These top-knots varied from one to seven. The result must have been an elaborate fan-shaped coiffue, lining the forehead and the brows. These men were also in the habit of matting their hair, hardening and thickning them with ash and other substances (IX.44.90, X.7.24, XIV.8.16).

In contrast to long hair, the face was generally clean-shaven. There are numerous references to shaven faces of dead warriors sprawled on the battlefield (VI.92.74; VIII.14.50). Only a sage and a Brahmin like Durvasa kept a long beard (III.287.4). men was of To sum-up we can say that the fashion among - 246 long hair and clean-shaven faces. This refers predominantly to Ksatriya men. Sages, ascetics and Brahmins kept long beards. Coiffures for Women Long, black and curely hair were considered the ideal type for women (1.96.54, 155.42; II.62.22). Nothing is said of the usual hairstyle for women. We have to therefore, conjure up a picture, however incomplete, from what is said of hairstyles for unusual occasions. On a few occasions women left their hair loose and unattended. One such occasion was when Draupadi was dragged to the Kauravasabha by Duhsasana, pulling and pushing her around with her loose hair. Draupadi's informal hairstyle was ascribed to her 'rajasvala' condition, when her dress too, was a simple ekavastra. This was

certainly not the dress nor the hairstyle to appear in public (II.60.22, 28).. = 247 As happens so often in the Epic, it is only under conditions of grave misfortune that women throw these conventions aside and appear on the scene with their dishevelled hair flying loose. When they do so, they can not but touch the very depths of the reader's heart! Who will not greive with a Draupadi, clad in an ekavastra, slowly following her husbands into the forest, concealing her tear-stained face with her loose-stresses (II.70.9), or with a Damayanti, roaming alone the streets of the Cedi capital as a Sairandhri, with her hair loose and covered with dust (III.62.19) ? The most poignant scene comes after the great war when the wives of the Kaurava princes search the battlefield for their' dead ones (XI.16.18). These widows, as well as later, the widows of Vasudeva, are described as 'mukta-kesya' (XVI.8.17). It is interesting to note that in all these instances the women described are also 'ekavastra'. Somehow there is a curious association of loose hair with an ekavastra. On the basis of what has already been said about the 'ekavastra', we may assume that the hair were left loose when women were informally dressed and remained indoors, and only on occasions of grave importance, which was always a personal tragedy for most of them, did they appear in public in this informal garb and hairstyle,

= 248 paying no attention to their appearance in the sheer agony of their greif. It would, however, be wrong to imagine that only the widows went about with loose hair, for the examples of Draupadi and Damayanti disprove this belief. The kind of situations when women appear in loose hair, emphatically prove that this was far from being the usual hairstyle, and that in the normal cource women certainly took greater care of their hair and dressed them up in a variety of coiffures, which unfortunately are not elabora- - ted upon by the Mahabharata The practice of matting the hair, generally a prerogative of ascetics, was sometimes adopted by women too. There are two examples, very similar in nature, of sita in the captivity of Ravana (III.275.9), and Damayanti separated from Nala in her father's house (III.74.8). Both these women were 'virahinis', living out the period of separation with the deliberate dignity of an ascetic, undergoing a vow of penance. What then could have been the usual hairstyle? From the few positive indications it appears that most women either preferred to have their hair made into plaits which were tied with ribbons or to knot them up on top of the head. The courtezan sent to seduce the young sage Rayasriga, had carefully split her hair into two plaits, neatly tied with golden ribbons (III.112.2, 9). Sita had

arranged her well-oiled, black hair into a long plait (III.265.24-25), and Arjuna in the guise of the ennuch Brhannada always went about with a long pleit tossing on his back (IV.2.22, 10.2, 5, 18.13). On the other hand, the raksasi Hidimba, = 249 attempting to captivate Bhima, came to him beautifully dressed and adorned, her hair coiled in a knot around which were placed ribbons and flower-garlands (I.140.13). A similar hairstyle was adopted by Draupadi entering Virata's capital as a Sairandhri. She had pulled up her curly hair into a knot on the right side of the head, and in the words of the Mahabharata 'concealed the knot' (IV.8.1), probably with a veil or a turban, as in the sculptures at Sanchi and Barhut, although the Mahabharata does not describe any woman using these. Introducing herself as a Sairandhri, Draupadi claimed that she is a trained beautician and hairdresser (IV.3.17). We may therefore, conclude that women left their hair loose when they remained indoors or on occasions of mourning, otherwise they carefully combed and braided their hair into plaits or put them up in knots. It was an extremely common practice for both men and women to apply perfumed oils and scented powders like sandal-powder to their hair. Flowers and flowergarlands too were lavishly used to decorate the hair (I.158.30; IV.21.47; V.80.33).

This scanty material of the Mahabharata is scattered through 18 long Parvas. It is a difficult task to put it together comprehensively and present a coherent = 250 picture. One has to always bear in mind that the various references, each in a different Parva, might not have come from a single pen, and are likely to be separated by a span of hundreds of years. Therefore, as far as coiffures are concerned, sculptured figures are probably the best guides for obtaining a fuller picture of the Yet any fashions that prevailed through the centuries. attempt to sift the Mahabharata material chronologically has to be viewed sceptically, considering the meagreness of the contents. A glance at sculptured figures in stone and terra-cotta shows that long hair were always in fashion with both men and women in India, from very ancient times. At Mohenjo-daro men either cut their hair shoulder length or put them up in a knot at the back, supported by a fillet tied around the forehead. Women curled their hair, and dressed them up in elaborate coiffures. Male figures in the sculptures at Barhut and Sanchi invariably wore their hair long, tied in top-knots, around which the turbans were tied. Certain categories of men, e.g. the genii or dwarfs, seldiers, charioteers and musicians, had curled locks upto the shoulders. Women,

- 251 too, put their hair up in top-knots when they wore a turban, but also arranged them in two plaits at the back or simply let them loose with only the ends looped or knotted (Motichandra 1973 : 199-200). The presence of curly hair, sticking to the head, is a new feature at Sanchi. As pointed out by Dhavalikar (1965: 29), curly hair, conspicuously absent in early Indian art, first appear in the Kushana period on the images of the Buddha from Mathura, and are likely to have been borrowed just before the opening of the Christian era, from the Greeks and the Romans with whom it was a raging fashion. As we have noticed, curly hair (kuncita) were very much in vogue in the Mahabharata too, judging from the prominent references to them (1.96.54, 155.42; II.60.22; IV.8.1; V.80.33-34; VII.82.7, 102.35). Thus the literary data of the Mahabharata fits in very well with what the early sculptures depict. There are, however, certain aspects of the Epic such as the loose hair of women on particular occasions, on which the sculptures throw no light. They have to be understood in their Epic contexts only. Finally in all these fashions there is always the individual touch which is not necessarily bound by its age and surroundings. M

COSMETICS - 252 Ancient Indians were highly conscious of the effects of personal cleanliness and the application of cosmetics. They used them freely and to great advantage in enhancing their natural good looks and charm. 1. Bath Bathing was a very important feature of the daily life, probably the first thing resorted to in the morning (VI.82.53). Cleansing the body with bath was absolutely essential before worship and all important ceremonial occasions (I.30.18; IV.65.1), and it was also a necessary feature of women's toilet (1.43.11, 143.17). A bath could be an elaborate affair for men and women who had the leisure and the means to command such a luxury. There were special bathrooms for the purpose called managrha or snanasati (VII.58.7; XIII. 21.1-2). The Mahabharata gives a detailed picture of Yudhisthira taking his morning bath, before setting out for the battlefield (VII.58.7-11). He squated on a special stool in the bathroom, dressed only in a brief under-garment. One hundred young men, expert bathers, clad in clean white garments, attended on him. They rubbed his body with perfumed unguents, and bathed him with scented sandal-water, pouring it out from golden pictures. After

- 253 the bath the body was anointed with yellow sandal-paste. Yudhisthira then dressed and put on yellow flower garlands before proceeding for his daily worship. Men and women trained as beauticians, cosmeat -ticians, bath-attendants and hair-dressers were greatly in demand. The example of Draupadi as a Sairandhri a the court of Virata has already been cited. In the Sabhaparva, Subhadra brought to the Pandava household, as part of her rich dowry, women beauticians, specially trained in the art of bathing (I.213.44). 2. 011 s, Unguents, Perfumes etc. This brings us to the widespread practice among both men and women of anointing the body with scented oils, powders, pastes, unguents etc. Oil was rubbed on to the body before taking bath (XIII.21.1-2, 53.8, 9). Differant parts of the body like the head and the face were anointed and probably decorated with auspicious designs and sacred marks (V.124.10; VIII.15. 41; IX.10.45; XI.25.2). below : The different materials utilized are described Aromatic Woods (1) Candana: (Santalum album), was by far the most popular aromatic wood. Sandal powder and paste were rubbed on the body prior to bath as well

as after it, and they were also mixed with bath water. Two varities of Candana are mentioned Haricandana or Yellow Sandal-wood (VII.58.10), and Raktacandana or Red Sandal-wood (VII.111.24). The powered wood of the Red Sandal-wood (Pterocarpus Santalinus) was much sought after for its red colour. Even today it is used for dying cloth and leather (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 136). (11) Ageru : (Aquilaria Agallocha), the fragrant = 254 Eaglewood tree was generally coupled with Candana in the preparation of cosmetics (II.19.26; V.124.10; VIII.12.5; IX.10.45; XI.16.33; XIII.63.30). The essential oil obtained from the fungus-infested wood of this tree is used in perfumery and medicinally as astringent, stimulant, tonic and aphrodisiac (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 13; Chopra 1956: 204). The variety frequently mentioned is Kalagaru or Krsnagaru, the black Eagle-wood tree (1.118.19, 176.24). Aromatic Resins These resins retained their fragrance even when reduced to a paste, boiled, burned, or mixed with other ingredients. (1) Kaliyaka: is a yellowish greasy resin which collects in masses on the stem of the Agaru tree. Some believe it to be a yellowish fragrant

- 255 wood, probably a variety of Agaru (Motichandra 1973: 198). Fragrant Herbs The essence or extract of these herbs was used in perfumery. (1) Tungaka: (Rotteria Tinctoria), and (11) Padmaka: (Prunnus Ceresoides) or (Prunnus puddum), have been mentioned only twice, but coupled together both the times (I.118.22; XII.254.7). t Padmaka grows wild in the temprate Himalayas from Garhawal to Sikkim and Bhutan, at an aptitude of 3000-6000 ft., but is often cultivated at higher altitude in the Kodaikanal and Cootacamand Hills. Its bark is used as an astringent (Chopra 1956: 204). (111) Priyangu occurs in literature as a perfume, as a medicinal plant, and as a fragrant seed. Sanskrit lexicograpbers are not unanimous in its exact botanical identification. It has been variously equated with (Aglaia Odorata), an elegant shrub with whitish-yellow, sweet-scented flowers, with Long Pepper (Pinus Longum), and with saffron (Monier Williams 1899 : 711). (iv) Bilva: (Aegle Marmelos), the Wood-Apple tree, commonly called Bel. Its leaves and

fruits were used in perfumery (Chopra 1956 : 8). (v) Tagara (Tabernaemontana divaricata) Or wn - 256 (Tabernaemontana Coronaria), Crape Jasmine in English, and Candani or Cameli in Hindi, is a popular ornamental herb with fragrant flowers, commonly found in North and North-Eastern India, but now cultivated in gardens throughout the country (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 154; Chopra 1956: 110). It can also be identified with (Valeriana Officinalis 1), a herb, which is a native of Eurasia, but is found in Kashmir. Its dried risomes and roots are the source of an essential oil, which is used in perfumery (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 164). (vi) Kesara: (Crocus Sativus), commonly known as Kashmir. saffron, is a herb cultivated mostly in Its dried stigmas and the tops of its styles are used as medicine, as spice, and as dyestuff (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 8). The colour is orangy-red and it has a mild perfume. (vii) Alakta is the red juice or the lac-dye, obtained from the red resin of certain trees. Hands, feet, etc. are still decorated with designs drawn with this red juice. These last five herbs occur only once in the

Mahabharata, Priyangu, Bilva, Tagara and Kesara together (XIII. 107.80), while Alakta with Padmaka and Tunga, as perfumery articles put up for sale in the market (XII. 254.7). The above brief account shows that a variety - 257 of powders, pastes, juices and extracts of different species of plants and flowers were used for the quality of their perfume or for their colouring properties. Colour- -ful patterns and designs, sacred motifs and auspicious marks, were drawn on different parts of the body. Later classical literature mentions some beautiful designs drawn by women on their cheeks and shoulders, and the Apsaras at Barhut are a living example of these (Motichandra 1973 : 99). The Mahabharata does not allude to these feminine modes of decoration, but there are frequent references to arms of Ksatriya warriors be smeared with sandal-paste drawn in parallel lines (II.19.26; VI.110.18; VII.171.64; VIII.12.5; XI.25.2). Red sandal paste was sometimes added to lend colour (VI.93.21; VII.111.24; VIII.63.15). 3. Flowers & flower-garlands The use of fragrant, colourful flowers was by far, the most common practice in the Hbh. Both men and women donned flowers and flower-garlands, as readily and joyously as they did their more precious gold and jewelled ornaments (II.19.46; III.54.4). Even gods and Apsaras

delighted in them (I.114.43; II.8.6, 9.7; IX.44.19). Flowers were placed in the hair (III.112.16), = 258 and on the ears (III.170.35), flower chaplets and crowns were woven for the head (III.265.4), and flower-garlands were worn around the neck and the head (V.196.2; VIII.68. 28; VII.151.19). These fragile ornaments, able to retain their fragrance and freshness only for a few hours, figure as precious articles of presentation at marriages, sacrifices etc. to princes, to Brahmins, and to their devotees from the gods (I.186.5; III.242.22). Varuna gave a garland of the choicest fragrant flowers to Nala as a token of their freindship (III.54.32), and Indra presented the famous 'Indramala' a garland of ever-fresh lotuses to Uparicara Vasu (1.57.15-16). Many different kinds of flowers must have been used, though lotuses are the only species of flowers mentioned as woven into garlands (VII.114.8). A special type of flower-garland, brought out in a 'virakamsya' or a brass vessel was looked upon as a token of victory. It was offered to a Ksatriya Prince emerging successful at a Svayamvara by his bride-go-be, or to a warrior setting out for a crucial battle, in anticipation of victory. A beaming Draupadi placed one such garland around Arjuna's neck, choosing him for her husband (1.179.22), and Satyaki received a similar one C POONA 6. LIBRARY

- 259 before setting out to destroy the Sams aptakas (VII.87.62). Two other types of beauty-aids were resorted to by women only. 4. Anjana It was a black pigment, collyrium or antimony paste, applied to the eyelashes and to the inner coat of the eye-lids, either with a finger or a metal or wooden rod. Surprisingly there are only two references to anjana. One is to a suchi or a rod for the application of collyrium (III.36.3), and the other to Bahlika women wearing anjana brought from Mt. Trikakuda (VIII.30.22). There are a few other indirect and poetic references where certain Raksasas, black in colour are compared to a heap of black anjana (VII.83.20; 131.44, 69, 142.37). This paucity of references is likely due to more attention being paid to the male characters, who are the main actors and heroes of the Epic saga, women being somewhat in the background. 5. Simanta Simenta is generally understood in Sanskrit as the parting in the hair of a woman. There are, however, two similes in the Mahabharata, which indicate that it could also have been the vermilion placed in the parting of the hair. The Mahabharata poet describes the Naga king Taksaka disappearing through the sky, after biting king Janamejaya, as a bright streak of simanta, as red as a lotus (1.40.3). Similarly

the red-topped mace of Jarasandha, which he hurled at la Bhima, is described as fishing through the sky like a line of red simanta (VII.156.9). - 260 In later times Simanta was looked upon as a privilage of the married woman only. An unmarried girl and particularly a widow could not avail herself of this form of personal decoration. The Mahabharata too, refers to this belief when it speaks of the devastating massacre of the war resulting in the wiping out of the simanta of many a fair women, suggesting eloquently that widowed women stopped applying the simanta (IX.22.19). The point to note however, is that this is a totally isolated reference, going against the spirit of the Epic. There is enough evidence to show that things were not so rigid in the Mahabharata If Gandhari and Draupadi were "simentini" so also was widowed Kunti! (III.277.3; V.88.90; IX.62.56). Besides there are many more examples of widowed women, of the wives of the Kauravas and other princes who died in the war, of Vrani women and the widows of Vasudeva, which makes no reference to the removal of simanta from a widowed woman's hair. In fact, to the contrary, the widowed wives of the Kauravas are described as "simanta siroruha" i.e. with their hair parted in a simanta. Their condition of widowhood is probably indicated by their white garments and not by anything else (XV.32.15).

- 261 Thus whatever be the pros and cons of the issue, wheather simanta be merely the parting of the hair or the vermillion applied in it, it is significant that widows were not discriminated against, in this respect, from any other women in the Mahabharata The daily bath and ablution with water has always played an important role in the life of every Hindu from times immemorial. The early Vedic texts confirm this belief and speak of ceremonial bathing with scented waters and perfumed unguents on special occasions like marriage (Motichandra 1973: 185). However, references to the presence of trained bathers and washers first start appearing in the Pali literature, where the king was waited upon by a special barber, who dressed his hair, bathed him, and anointed his body. This class of trained servants becomes much more profuse and well-roganized from the Maurya period onwards. The Arthasastra speaks of a host of servants in charge of dress and cosmetics which they received under seal from the officer-in-charge of the harem. There were others like shampooers, bathroom-attendants, bathers, flower-garland makers, and perfume manufactures, who were often drawn from the class of female slaves, prostitutes

- 262 and actresses, especially trained for these vocations. In the early centuries of the Christian era, it became fashionable for every household in the North, as well as the South, to employ a big retinue of expert servants, especially women, as skilled beauticians, bath attendants, cosmeticians and garland-makers. The literature of this period and the sculptures at Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda in the South, often portray scenes of royal ladies in their luxurious baths or at their lavish toilets, waited upon by a bevy of female attendants (Motichandra 1973 : 189, 194, 202-203). Against this background the Mahabharata references to these trained servants are rather scanty and only the instance of Draupadi as a Sairadhri at the court of Virata, gives some details. She was entrusted with the task of dressing Queen Sudeana's hair, of weaving flowergarlands and preparing sandal-paste for the king (IV.8.16). The role of Damayanti as a Sairandhri is rather ambiguous for her duties are nowhere defined (III.62). The other references are generally to snapakas or trained bathers (1.213.44; VII.58.8). Such trained hands do not appear to have been as profuse as in later day court-life, for both Draupadi and Damayanti were readily accepted into service and all their demands and conditions complied with without much ado (III.62.38-39; IV.8.29). It may not, therefore, be wrong to place all these references to a

period slightly earlier than or contemperanous with the Arthasastra. - 263 The use of aromatic woods, resins, herbs etc. too, is an ancient practice, but the material preserved in the Mahabharata is too meagre for a critical comment. Barring Candana and Agaru most others are mentioned hardly once or twice. Candana and Agaru have always been the cheif cosmetic and perfumery articles in India. However, they appear rather late in ancient Indian literature. Neither of the two occur in the Vedic literature, nor even in Panini. The earliest occurence is in the Epics and the Buddhist Pali literature, which speaks of a lavish use of both Candana and Agaru powder, paste, oil and perfume. The succeeding centuries under the Mauryas increased the demand manyfolds. They came from distant lands to be stockpiled in the royal Mauryan treassury at Patliputra as semi-precious materials, a heavy price having been paid for them. Kautilya mentions in all 16 varieties of Cendana and 3 of Agaru (Shamshastry 1956: 79-80), besides other types of aromatic woods and resins. This ample availability and easy access to the sources of Candena was made possible by the establishment of the far-flung and stable empire of the Mauryas, which for the first time brought the entire sub-continent under one rule, encouraging a flourishing internal trade throughout the country. As a result Sandalwood from the South and

- 264 Eaglewood from the East began pouring into Magadha and the adjoining northen provinces of the Mauryas. Sandalwood is at present mostly found in the Western peninsula, Mysore and Tamilnadu (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 140). So also RedSandalwood (136). Agaru on the other hand is located in the Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan, parts of Bengal and Assam and the forests of Khasia, Naga and Garo Hills (Chopra 1956 : 204). Thus it is safe to assume that the trade in these aromatic woods, particularly sandalwood from the South, had not picked up before the Mauryas 1.e. before the 4 th century B.C. The Mahabharata references to Candana and Agaru are therefore, certainly later than the 4 th century B.C., but exactly how late is rather difficult to say. But References to Candana are scattered through almost every Parva, those to Agaru a little more restricted. fortunately all references giving details of geographical locations are concentrated in a single Parva, the Sabhaparva (II), the earlier portions of which deal with the conquests of the Pandavas all over the country, North, South, East and West, and with the Rajasuya sacrifice performed by Yudhisthira. According to these details, Sahadeva, on a conquest of the South, received from king Vibhisana Paulastya at Bharukkacha (modern Broach), an ancient trading post on the West-coast, a tribute consisting among other things of Candana and Agaru wood (II.28.52-53). Similarly Bhima, on a conquest of the Bast, received a gift of Candana and Agaru wood from the

= 265 eastern kingdoms of Paundra, Vanga, Tamralipta and Lauhitya, all situated within the limits of modern Assam, Bengal and Orissa (II.27.26). Yet another consignment of Candana and Agaru, along with the fragrant resin Kaliyaka, was received during the Rajasuya sacrifice, brought in heaps by the aborigine Kiratas, from far-off regions of the North-Eastern Himalayas (II.48.9). Thus the Mahabharata is fully aware that the traffic in aromatic woods came from the South on one hand, and the East on the other. However, there seems to be a slight confusion. If we take the Mahabharata literally, then it would seem that Candana grew in the East as well as in the and Agaru in the South South, as well as in the East. But this seems unlikely from a botanical point of view. It is more likely that Candana and Agaru, generally used together in cosmetics, are coupled together in these references too, out of sheer habit, confusing their individual geographical locations. Yet the presence of both Candana and Agaru at sea-ports like Bharukaccha on the West-coast and Tamralipti on the East, is not at all surprising. These ports were the out- - lets for Indian goods to Rome and the West on one hand, and to China and the Far East on the other, during the 1 st-2 nd centuries A.D. They were also the recieving stations for foreign goods later distributed throughout the country. Thus they became the emporiums for all kinds of goods comming from within the country, as well as, from distant lands. The Mahabharata descriptions are, therefore, quite

= 266 convincing. Bharukaccha, for sure, rose to prominence during the period 100. B.C. to 200 A.D. Its mention as a flourish- -ing trading port in the Sabhaparva dates these portions of the Epic, more or less certainly, to the early centuries of the Christian era. The Sandalwood trade from Bharuka- -echa mentioned by the Mahabharata is backed by similar evidence in Periplus, according to whom Sandalwood was being exported to Omman from Barygaza, modern Broach and ancient Bharuka- -echa, and thence to Rome (Schoff 1912: 36). We may there- -fore, date the geographical details of Candana and Agaru in the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata, to the beginnings of the Christian era, while all other references to these aromatic woods are probably a century or two earlier. This conclusion becomes inevitable in the light Thus of literary evidence from the 1 st century A.D. onwards. The Sanskrit literature of this period has the greatest variety of aromatic woods, resins, herbs and other chemical components. This was an era of plenty, of a surplus balance from a flourishing foreign trade, reflected in an everincreasing demand for luxury goods of all kinds. Costus (cut-root of Saussurea lappa), Bdellium (gum of Balsamodendron mukula), Spikenard (the herb Nardostachys Jatamansi) and Malabathrum (Cinamum), came to be exported from India to Rome, through ports like Brabaricum on the mouth of the Indus, Barygaza in Gujarat, and Chera and

- 267 Pandya ports lining the Malabar coast. From the other side, from Rome and West Asia, came Storax, Frankinsence and a variety of fragrant ointments (Schoff 1912: 128, 163, 169, 189, 216). This two-way traffic in insence, perfumes, ointments and important aromatic ingredients of medicinal oils, is an eloquent testimony to the luxurious living of the upper classes in India during this period. The Mahabharata is a stranger to this lavish luxury. As far as other perfumery articles are concerned, some like Priyangu, Tagara and Kaliyaka, appear in the Buddhist Pali texts, while others like Bilva, Kesara and Alakta in works dated to the 1 st-2 nd centuries A.D., like Divyavadans and Kamasutra (otichandra 1973: 191, 192, 206, 208). Tunga and Padmaka which are coupled together, appear to be peculiar to the Mahabharata That most of these must have entered the Epic at a later stage of its development is obvious, since they occur mostly in the two Parvas, Santi and Anusasana. One of the very ancient cosmetic items is anjana or kohl. The Atharvaveda and the early Brahmanas frequently refer to anjana, the best quality comming from Mt. Trikakuda. The Mahabharata too, refers to this specially valuable variety, which in its day and time, was used by Bahlika women. From Vedie descriptions the colour of this anjana appears to have been jet-black. It is commonly believed to be the black-ore of antimony, known as Surma, and imported from Kandahars and

- 268 Isfahan. Mt. Trikakuda itself has been identified with Mt. Trikota, a lofty mountain to the North of Punjab and the South of Kashmir (Motichandra 1973: 186). Dr. V. 3. Agrawala on the other hand, believes it to be the Suleiman mountain range, which is the home of a valuable salve sold all over the Punjab and Sind (1963: 40-41). The use of anjana or collyrium is well-documented in archaeological records. Mohenjo-dero, Harrapa and Chanhu-daro, are some of the earliest sites to report the use of copper and bronze antimony rods, known to the Mahabharata as 'anjana-suchi'. Many more, probably of wood, have been destroyed. Copper antimony rods have also been reported from PGW sites like : Daulatpur II (IAR 1968-69 : 9), Allahpur IB (IAR 1970-71: 41), Sonepur II (IAR 1956-57 : 19}, Shravasti (IAR 1958-59: 48), and Hastinapura II (AI, 10-11, 1954-55 : 13),

where they have been dated to 1100-800 B.C. Antimony rods became more common in the succeding NBP levels, dated more or less precisely to 600-200 B.C. During this period they were found at a number of North Indian sites like : Chirand II (IAR 1962-63 : 6) (IAR 1968-69 : 6), Vaisali (IAR 1961-62 : 5), Masaon IB (IAR 1965-66 : I-92), Ujjain II (IAR 1957-58 : 36), Rajghat (IAR 1964-65 : 45), Atranjikhera (IAR 1967-68 : 46), Shravasti I (IAR 1958-59: 48), Hastinapura III (AI, 10-11, 1954-55 : 16), - 269

Mathura. (IAR 1954-55:: 15), Nagda III (IAR 1955-56: 14), and - 270 Ahar II A (Sankalia et al. 1969 : 199). They were now not only made of copper, but also of bone and ivory. These copper and ivory rods became very profuse in the post-NBP period, roughly from 200 B.C. to 300 A.D., during the Sunga-Kushana era in the North, and the Sata- -vahena era in the Deccan and the South, a period of rich finery all over India. During this period, Stibnite, a Sulphide ore, comming from Eastern Arabia, was being imported at Broach, on a large-scale, to be made into an eye-ointment (Schoff 1912 : 192). a Archeological evidence also records the use of ornamental hair-pins of metal, bone and ivory, combs of bone and ivory, and small jars and bottles of stone, metal and glass, for perfumes and pigments. Since none of these are alluded to in the Mahabharata, but only infered, they have not been dealt with here in greater details.