Chapter 3 - Details of Fauna in the Mahabharata

It is a peculiarity of the Epic that most of its metaphors and similes are derived from Nature, from trees, animals and birds. Thus a very large number of faunal details have entered the Mahabharata The wilder species also occur in descriptions of foresttracts and hunting expeditions, others in the context of domestication and use of flesh for food. The superstition that certain birds and animals can portend good or bad omens was also very much prevelant in the Epic. Birds (A) Birds that live near human habitations, ar domesticated, or kept in cavtivity. = 51

- 52 1) KAKA : (Corvus splendens), Crow, also known as 'vayasa' and 'dhvanksa' (1.2.263, 60.55; III.255.31) 2) KALAVINKA : (Passer domesticus), Sparrow, 3) KAPOTA 155 also known as 'cataka' (III.47; XII.253.41) : (Columbia livia), the blue Rock Pigeion (III.131.19) 4) KUKKUTA : (Gallus Sp.), the Cock or the domestic fowl (III.214.24) 5) MAYURA : (Pao cristatus), the Peacock, also known by various other names, such as 'barhina', 'Sitikantha', Sikhin', 'nilakantha', and 'tamracuda' (1.85.6; III.25.18, 71.6-7, 146.20, 214.23; XV.34.10) 6) PARAVATA : (Steptopelia tranquelaria), the Red Turtle Dove (VII.22.33) 7) SARIKA : The Starling (III.155.73) 8) SUKA :(Psittacula Krameri), the Roseringed Parakeet (1.60.5) POONA & LIBRARY

(B) Birds that live in the wild. 9) BHRINGARAJA: (Lamus excubitor), the Forktailed or Grey Shrike (XIII. SAU 54.10) 10) CAKORA : (Perdix rufa), the Greek 11) CATAKA 12) GASA 13) DATYUHA Partridge, who is believed to subsist on moonbeams, a favorite theme in later literature, but not mentioned in the Mahabharata (XIII.54.11) (Cueculus melanoleus), who is believed to subsist on rain- -drops, although the Mahabharata does not mention this particular trait, often refered to in later Classical literature. (III.155.48) : (Coracias benghalensis), the Blue Jay or the Indian Roller (XII.103.11). : probably the same bird as the Cataka (XV.34.9-10) - 53

- 54 14) HARITA : (Treron phoenicoptera), the Common Green Pigeon or the Haritala Pigeon (III.155.47) 15) JIVAJIVAKA : a kind of Pheasant (XII.137.6) 16) KAPINJALA : (Francolinus francolinus), the Francoline or Black Partridge or Heath-cock (V.9.35). 17) KHANJARITA : (Motacilla caspica), the large Pied Wagtail or (Motacilla maderaspatensis), the Grey wagtail (XII.314.50). 18) KOKILA :(Endynamys scolopacea), Cockoo or Koyal (XIII.54.10-11) 19) KOYASTIKA : literally 'having legs like sticks', (Venellus indicus), the Red wattled Lapwing or (Ardea gravii), the small white Crane, commonly called the Paddy bird or the Pond Heron (XIII.54.10).

- 55 20) LATVA a small sparrow-like bird, also known as 'latvakapaksi'. It is most certainly the Common Grey Quail (Coturnix coturnix) or the Jungle Bush Quail. (VIII.27.40; XII.173. 29). 21) LOHAPRSTHA : literally 'iron-backed, a bird that belongs to the 'Pratuda' class of 'pecking birds', which includes such other birds as the falcon, hawk, owl, parrot, crow, raven and the peacock (III.155.76). 22) PRIYAVRATA: ? (III.155.48) 23) PUSPASAKUNA: (Phasianus gallus), the Flower-bird or (Diaceum erythrorhynchos), the Flowerpecker (V.141.17) 24) PUTRAPRIYA : (Upupa epopos), the Hoopoe 25) SANGAKA (III.107.8) (1.220.16)

26) SATAPATRA : Woodpecker, also known as 'darvaghata', i.e. the cutter of wood' (XII.103.11; X.7.18) 27) TITTIRI : (Francolinus pondicerianus), the Grey Partridge (I.44.81) 28) VINAVADA ? (XIII.54.11), also known as Vanivada (C) Birds of prey or carniverous birds 29) BADA or VADA: 30) BHASA a bird of prey often mentioned in the Epic as frequenting the bloody battle-field but un- -identifiable in modern orinthological terms. It is a bird that belongs to the 'Pratuda' or 'pecking birds' class (V.47.18) C : probably the white seavenger Vulture, (Neophron perenopterus) (1.60.56). 31) BHULINGA or KULINGASAKUNI : or KULINGASAKUNI : another bird that belongs to the 'Pratuda' class. The behaviour of the bird is sighted as an example - 56 R POONA 6 LIBRARY

- 57 of rash courage, which succeeds so long as the other, more powerful side, does not retaliate. The moral is preached by Sisupala to Bhisma who was openly provok- -ing him by honouring his rival Krsna. The Bhulinga bird is fond of flesh, but instead of hunting for it, takes it out of the mouth of the lion as he devoures his prey. The bird has to be quick and the lion condescending, lest he shut his open jaws before the bird has withdrawn its head ! The call of the bird is inter- -preted rather significantly to sound like "ma sahasam" i.e. "do not be rash" (II.38.17, 41.18-21; XII.163.9, 253.20). 32) BHURUNDA or BHARUNDA : probably some kind of a vulture, described as having a "human head". They feast on dead human bodies exposed on

elifs in the Uttarakuru country, a reference to the ancient practice of exposing the dead to preying birds and animals, prevelant among the early Iranians and still preserved by the Parsis (III. 170.42; VI.8.11; XII.163.9) 33) GARUDA : Eagle, also known as 'suparna' and 'paksirata' (king of 34) GROHRA birds), was the natural enemy of the Nagas, with an important role in mythology (1.96.36; III.214.9-10) : Vulture, probably the white- -backed Bengal Vulture (Gyps benghalensis) (1.60.55) 35) KKOLA : Raven (III.255.31) 36) KANKA 37) SYENA : another kind of Vulture feasting upon dead carcasses on the battle-field (III.255. 31). : Hawk (1.60.55) = 58

- 59 38) ULUKA : Owl (1.60.55) (D) Acquatic birds (Ardea Nivea), the Great 39) Baka (Ardea Ni 40) CHAKRAVAKA White Heron or (Casmerodius alba), also known as 'balahaka' and 'balaka' (female). The bird can also be identified with (Egretta alba), the large Egret, who is pure white and usually a solitary bird, known as 'bagala' in Hindi (III.155.50; VI.89.4, 108.8) 1 the Ruddy Sheldrake or the Brahmany Duck, closely associated with the Hamsa and the Karandava geese, also known as 'cakrasavhaya' both the words meaning 'one who produces the sound chakra' (III.61.108).

41) HAMSA : Swan or Geese, more likely the Barheaded Geese (Anser indicus) (III.39.18) 42) JALAKUKKUTA : (Amaurornis phoenicurus), 43) KALAHAMS A 44) KARANDAVA the white-breasted water- -hen (III.107.7). : (Anser anser), the Greylag Goose, also known as "kadamba (III.155.85, 161.5) : a species of geese or duck closely associated with the Hamsa (III.39.18). 45) KRAUNCA : Curlew (III.39.18) 46) KURART : Osprey (III.60.19) 47) MADGU 48) PLAVA : (Anhinga rufa), the Diver or the Darter bird (III. 155.50) : literally "one who floats", a species of water-duck (III.155.50) - 60

49) RAJAHAMSA : the "King Swan", either the White European Swan or the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) (III.155.66) 50) SARASA : (Grus antigone), the Sarasa crane (III.39.18) 51) UPACAKRA : a species of duck (III.155.76). Many of the birds listed above faced a constant threat from hunters and fowlers. Either their flesh or their feathers were in demand. All the arrows in the armoury of the Mahabharata heroes were fitted with the feathers of either the peacock, or the vultures, Kanka and Grdhra (III.34.83; IV.53.39). Many other species too were being driven to extinction under the threat of ruthless slaughter. The Santiparva, therefore, steps in to give a list of protected birds whose killing was forbidden to a Brahmin (XII.37.18-19). Similar, but much more exhaustive lists appear in the Sutras (Om Prakash 1961 : 40), but there too, they are always directed towards the Brahmins. By the exclusion of the uppermost crust of society, at least a partial if not complete protection, was sought to be gauranteed to these unfortunate birds whose killing had otherwise become widespread with all the four castes. The Mahabharata - 61

- 62 itself records the story of a Brahmin named Gautama, who trecherously murdered a Baka crane, picked out his feathers and roasted his body in fire, before feasting on it (XII.166.3-4). The protected birds of the Santi can be divided into two categories. To the first belong picturesque water-birds like the 1 Hamsa, ii Baka, 111 Madgu, iv Plava, and V the beautiful peacock. All were hunted as table birds, as well as for their feathers. The testimony of the first Girnar Rock dict of Emperor Asoka is a concrete proof that peacocks were not sacred and protected in ancient India as they are now. In the royal kitchen of the Mauryas two peacocks were slaughtered daily despite Asoka's conversion to Buddhism and emphasis on vegetarianism (Hultzsch 1925:1) To the second category belong birds of prey 11 ke 1) the Vultures Grdhra, Bhasa, Kanka, POONA S LIBRARY

- 63 ii) the eagle Suparna, 111) the owl Uluka, iv) the crow Kaka These birds are useful to man for the scavenging job they perform near human habitations, however repulsive their food-habits. They also destroy a large number of feild pests, like small mice, lizards, insects etc. The feathers of the vultures Grdhra and Kanka/used extensively for arrows, and the others too, were probably killed more for their feathers than for their flesh. were This list, however, is not exhaustive for there were others like the small sparrow like Latvakapaksi (Quail) and the pigeons who were trapped in nets and cages and sold in the markets (XII.141.13, 143.10, 173.29). Another protected bird was the village cock, kukkuta, whose habit of picking food on rubbish dumps was considered unclean (XII.159.70). The north-western Bahlikas, however, relished its flesh (VIII.30.29-32). There is no reason to believe that these prohibhitory injunctions were strictly obeyed. No doubt, in the course of centuries, Brahmins all over India became strict vegetarians, but the majority of the people have continued with their food-habits. In any case neither the Sutra texts, nor the Mahabharata, attempts to impose

- 64 the same norms on the other castes as on the Brahmins. Of the large number of birds mentioned by the Epic, the Hamsa is the most outstanding bird of the Epic. Almost everything and anything graceful reminds the poet of the Hamsa. Feathered arrows speeding through the Sky are like a row of Hamsas in the autumn Sky (IV. 53.39); an arrow plunging into the body of the warrior, is like a Hamsa plunging into the placid waters of a lake (VI.106.42); an arrow lost in the ground is like a Hamsa lost in a pool of red lotuses (VII.101.36); a charge of horses is like a horde of Hamsas descending on a great lake (VI.101.15); an army attacking is like a Hamsa colony invading the river Ganga (VIII.43.64), and so on. These and similar other metaphors from the battle-field occur with a fascinating frequency (IV.59. 32; VI.98.11; VII.31.35; VIII.32.26 etc) not evident in the case of any other bird. The cultured speech of the Brahmins as they discuss amongst themselves or when they pronounce loud blessings on Yudhisthira (XII.40.18, 89.20) immedietely brings back to the poet's mind the sonorous call of the Hansas sporting joyously on a lake. So also the sweet Jingling of a bracelet on a woman's wrist (III.112.6). For the Epic, the Hamsa is always a bird of good omen. The sweet, resounding notes of his call were believed to be the harbinger of good fortune and

- 65 auspicious events, of victory in battle and prosperity in life (V.81.25, 141.17; VI.4.19; XII.311.20). The Hamsa also occur in descriptions of vimanas (ariel cars) of the gods, for it is they who carry the divine beings across the sky (III.246.31). It is, indeed, rather surprising, and at the same time, interesting that a migratory species like the Hamsas, not a constant feature of the faunal world, should so fascinate the Epic poets. One would generally expect the place of honour to go to the peacock or to the koyal, birds much more natural to the Indian surroundings. The Hamsa, on the other hand, visit India only in the winter, along with many other types of geese and duck from Tibet, Central Asia and Siberia. Vogel (1962:3) believes that the main cause for the reverence paid to the Hamsa in ancient India, was actually this status as a bird of passage, appearing marvellously at a fixed time of the year, in large flocks, on familiar lakes and rivers, and then disappearing, once again at a fixed time, in a northward flight towards the snowy Himalayas. A few other causes too, must have contributed to the preferential treatment. Firstly, the Epic poets must have been very familiar with those forests, lakes and rivers which were the frequent and regular haunt of the migratory Hamsa. Secondly, it is certain that a much larger number of these birds were visiting India in the past than now, flooding

= 66 the lakes and rivers with their snowy whiteness, a recurring phenomenon which became a regular feature of the landscape. And lastly, the Hamsas descending upon North India in the months of October seem to usher in the cold of the Himalayas, after nearly 4 to 5 months of gruelling heat, and as such are dearly loved by the poets, more than any other bird of their surroundings. The Mahabharata sites the Himalayan region with the lakes of the beautiful Gandhamadana forest (III.151.6, 155.47-48), the rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati, and the lakes and forests around them as the winter home of the Hamsas (III. 98.13-16, 155.81; VIII.63-43; XII.312.21). They came in large colonies from far-off Manasasarovara, their breeding ground across the Himalayas, when it froze in winter (VI. 114.91; VIII.28.20). A migratory route leading from Mt. Meru has been mentioned in a mythological story. blocked by another mountain range called the Kraunca, which was broken down by the young god Kartikeya to create an unobstructed path-way for the Hamsas (III.214.31). It was Manasasarovara figures again and again as the home of the Hamsas in later classical literature. Modern orin- -thologists agree about the validity of this belief and identify the species of geese that regularly migrate to India from this lake as the Barheaded geese (Anser indicus), a brownish, grey and white geese, with white head and sides of neck, and two distinct broad black bars across the nape. POONA

- 67 They arrive in India about October and depart by mid-March, and in the meanwhile are distributed throughout northen India and Assam, sometimes going as far South as Mysore. Their nearest breeding localities are in Ladhakh and Tibet, during the Summer months of April to June (Salim Ali 1967 : 34-35). An English traveller Moorecraft and Swedish geographerer Sven Hedin who visited the Manasasarovara and its surrounding area at different times (1815 and, 1907) came across breeding colonies of these wild geese on the lake, as well as large flocks of them making their way back from India to the Trans-Himalayas and Tibet, flying over the camp in silvery moonlight. Moorecraft even attempted to identify the 'Hamsadvara' (the Gate of the Hamsas) mentioned by Kalidasa, and indirectly refered to by the Mahabharata as carved out by Kartikeya after splitting the rocky mountain Kraunea, with the important Niti Pass, situated at a height of 16,628 ft. on the road leading from Garhwal to Tirthapuri and Manasasarovara (Vogel 1962 : 6). The only hitch in identifying the liamsas with the Barheaded geese, is the description of the bird in Indian literature as being spotlessly white. The totally white swan of Artic Europe and northen Central Asia rarely visit India, only when the winter spell becomes too severe, once in many years. This species have, therefore, to be ruled out. However, the white swan might not have been

- 68 totally unknown to the ancient Indians, and it is possible that the Rajahansa (the Royan Goose), was none other than this brilliantly white and rare species, mentioned hardly about thrice in the entire Epic (III.155.6; VI.4.19; XII. 314.5). But the Amarakosa (II.5.24) describes it as having a red bill and red feet which have led to its being equated with the Flamingo, a rosy white bird, with a heavy pink bill and distinct pink legs. It is however, somewhat surprising that the Flamingos which are known to breed in large numbers on their favorite breeding ground, the Rann of Kutch in Saurashtra (Salim Ali/: 134), are so utterly insignificant in the Mahabharata 1967 MAMALS (A) Domesticated Mamals 1) GO : (Bos indicus). Cow, also known as 'dhenu' and 'surabhi' (1.51.19; III. 82.76; XIII.77.72). The bull is refered to variously as 'rsabha', 'vrsa', 'kakuda', 'uksa' (the beast of burden), 'anadhua' (the cart-puller). 'salivaha' (pulling a cart loaded with rice) and 'vardhrinasa' (the castrated ox) POONA 6. LIBRARY

2) ASVA (1.105.2, 148.6; II.49; III.31.24; VIII.46.17; XIII.78.21, 106.28). : (Equus Caballus). Horse, also known as 'turaga', 'turangama', 'haya', 'hari' and 'vajin'. The female was known as 'vadava' (I. 58.28, 212.18, 213.42; II.25.6, 46.23; III.190.63; IV.8.11.11.9). - 69 3) GAJA : (Elephus maximus), Elephant, also known as 'hasti', 'dvipin', 'matanga', 'varana', 'kunjara', 'naga' and 'ibha'. The female was 'karenu' or 'vasita' (1.58.28, 60. 63-64, 68.5, 213.47-48, 219.12; II.54.8-9; IV.16.6; VII.128. 19; X.7.16). 4) USTRA : (Camelus dromedarium). Camel. The female is known as 'vami' (1.58.28; II.45.20). 5) ASVATARA : Hule. The female is 'asvatari' (I.213.43; VI.5.14). 6) RASABHA : (Equus asinus). Ass, also known as 'khara' or 'gardhabha' (1.58.28; II. 39.1; III.190.63).

7) AJA 8) MESA : (Capra hircus aegaerus), Goat, : also known as 'avi' and 'chaga'. Probably different breeds were intended (I.105.18; X.7.22). - 70 (Ovis orientalis vignei), Sheep, also known as 'edaka' and 'urabhra', both masculine words, for a ram. Probably different breeds were intended (IV.14.8; VI.5.14; IX.43. 27). 9) SUK ARA : (Sus scrofa cristatus), the domesticated village pig (1.69.9). 10) SVA : (Canis familiaris), Dog, also known as 'Svana', 'sarameya' and 'suna' (1.2.263, 110.20; VI.95.50). 11) MARJARA : (Felis ochreata), Cat, also known as 'marjaraka' and 'bidala' (1.223. 24; II.57.3; IX.43.25, 56.16). Of all the domesticated animals, the cow was the most valuable possession of the Epic Indians. Next came the horse. The cow is often refered to as 'godhana' (I. 205.7) and constituted the only true form of wealth on B

- 71 par with gold and silver. When a king had to make a gift, it generally took the shape of cows, sometimes in hundreds and thousands (an obvious exaggeration !) (II.4.3; III. 97.12), covered with expensive cloth and with little gold pieces attached to their horns, accompanied by a bronze milking vessel, and a calf of the same colour (XII.57.30, 77.22, 79.11). 'Godana' was resorted to on various important occasions, during Yajnas (II.30.51), during royal weddings (1.175.14), at the birth of a prince (1.213. 62), during pilgrimages (1.207.3; III.82.76-77), as a tribute from one king to another (II.47.11), and as charity to learned Brahmins (II.4.3). It was believed to lead to great merit in this life and hereafter (III.184.8-10; XIII. 63.19, 33, 77.22). The pre-eminent position of the cow was nothing unnatural considering that she was the source of the vital milk and dairy products like curds, butter, and ghee, which formed a major portion of the ancient diet. She supplied the bullock who drew the cart and ploughed the field. Thus the entire life of the ancients seemed to have revolved around an abundant and healthy cow population. Every household had a cow and possibly a bullock. Brahmins and ascetics living in forest hermitages sought cows from the king. The kings themselves maintained large herds of cattle in cowherd villages called 'ghosas', situat- -ed on the outskirts of their kingdoms, bordering the forests Everyone, even

a - 72 (III.113.16). Periodically, they went out to these ghosas, in a party, to inspect the cattle population and to brand the young ones produced in the mean while (III.234.4-7). The cows in these villages were in the charge of Gopadhyaksa or a Gavadhyaksa (IV.33.7), to whom the other cowherds were responsible. The duties and skills of this Gavadhyaksa have been defined in the Virataparva, when Sahadeva takes up the post of the Chief Cowherd with King Virata. He styles himself as a 'Gosankhyata', and claims great proficiency in controlling and milking cows, in keeping a track of their numbers i.e. the rise and fall in their population. He could tell a good cow from a bad one by watching its behaviour and certain physical signs considered auspicious (IV.3.6-10, 9.12). He was also in charge of all the milk and milk products, and was thus able to pass on the surplus to his other brothers serving incognotio in the same household (IV.12.8). Given these circumstances, it was quite normal for neighbouring princes to undertake occasional forays and cattle-raids into adjoining ghosas (IV.29.7-13). Descriptions of cows are ample in the Epic. The best of the cows had the large, clear eyes of a frog (1.165. 13), and the long graceful neck of a peacock (XIII.78.23). A brown-coloured kapila was one of the most favorite (III.80.76; XIII.78.8), but many other colours have also been described: POONA S LIBRARY

- 73 rohini, was ruddish, Sabala, speckled, Sveta, white, Krma, black, dhumra, grey like smoke, phen asavarna, shining white like milk-foam, vatarenusavarna, dull brown like the dust raised by the wind, hirnyavarna, shining yellow like gold, palaladhuaravarne, reddish grey, while a Pandukambalavarna, was red and white like the woolen blankets from the North-West (III.78.9-2)). The most desirable quality in a cow was ofcource her capacity to give a maximum yield of milk (XIII.63.19, e 77.22, 78.8). Different breeds were will-known, out of which two are clearly alluded to. A wild breed, 'aranya', was one of the best milk-yielding breeds (II.49.3). So also the cows from Mathura, presented in thousands to the Pandavas by Krsna, as part of Subhadra's dowry (I.213.41-43). Besides the milk-yielding cow, the cart-pulling 'anaduha' was an equally prized 'daksina', since the bullock-

- 74 -cart was the only means of transport for the common man (II.49.20; III.36-33; XIII.63.19, 78.21, 23). The intimate association of cows in everyday life of the people is best brought out by a whole lot of beautiful and graphic similes. Rival warriors locked in a dual and calling out in challenge, are like two roaring bulls battling over a cow in heat (VII.108.28). An army routed is as helpless as cows stuck in a pool of mud and unable to extricate themselves (IX.10.10). These are the favorite similes which occur again and again in battle- -description, but there are others too! Warriors tremble before a shower of arrows like cows in the cold of winter (VI.45.58; VII.7.17); Bhisma cracks down on the Pandava army like a herd of cattle on a freshly-packed granary (VI.99.3); Bhima puts up with a barrage of arrows, as the gracefully, as a bull the biting showers of rain (VII.102. 14); women surround the dead Salya like young cows a powerful bull stuck in mud (XI.11.8), the arrows of Arjuna cut through the limbs of Bhigma like cows butchered in the months of Magha (VI.114.60); dead Ksatriyas lie on the battlefield like slaughtered oxen (VII.101.73). The Mahabharata being primarily a saga of the warrior class of Ksatriyas, the animel most dear to them was the horse. He drew the chariot, a vehicle indespensable in war, a prestige symbol which no prince could do without. The horse was also ridden into battle and there are references.

= 75 to cavalry units taking part in the war (VI.44.20; VII.6.3). However, the fortunes of the war hardly ever depended upon the performance of the cavalry. It were the chariots and the chariot-warriors who won and lost the day. The Ksatriyas presented each other with hundreds of prized horses during weddings and sacrifices (I.191.17; II.47.11, 13,18). The best tribute paid by one king to another often consisted of beautiful, well trained horses (II.25.6), and the booty of war was also often counted in terms of the horses acquired (1.105.17). The whole Many of the Ksatriyas were themselves expert horse- -trainers and charioteers, and took great pride in their skill. It is true, that on the profession of a charioteer was looked down upon by the Ksatriyas, but considering the close association and co-operation, rather the inter- -dependance of the two in war, it is quite obvious that originally the Sutas or charioteers must have been Ksatriyas, whose profession, in course of time, became so specialized, that they lost their proficiency in arms and as a result were pushed down the social ladder. Yet even in the Mahabharata, a Suta like Karna could rise above his stature and become an equal of the Ksatriyas. At the same time there are two excellent examples of Ksatriyas stooping down to accept the role of charioteers, the most famous example being of course, of Krana ably charioteering Arjuna throughout the Mahabharata war. The second well-known example is of Salya, the king of the song C POONA & LIBRARY

- 76 Madra country, reluctantly agreeing to become a charioteer of Karna in his last great fight with Arjuna (VIII.26.7, 11). Both the examples are a proof that though charioteering was looked down upon, as a profession, it was highly prized as a martial skill. The skill did not comprise of expertise in only the management of the chariot and its monoeuvres, but also in the handling of horses in general, their training, their daily care, their deseases and caures, and a knowledge of their nature, behaviour and physical When features, which makes one type better than the other. Nakula disguised himself as the 'Asvabandha' or the horse- -keeper of King Virata (IV.3.2-3), he claimed proficiency in all the above branches of equestrian science (IV.3.3, 11.7-8). The horse-keeper or the groom in this instance is different from the charioteer, but as the head of the stables, all other grooms, as well as the charioteers, were put under Nakula (IV.11.9). It is significant that as a Ksatriya prince, he had no difficulty in adapting to this new role. That the charioteer and the groom were not always different is clear from yet another well-known instance of a ksatriya king - turned -groom, that of Nala, the lord of the Naisadha country, who lost his kingdom in a game of dice and took service under king Rituparna of Ayodhya (III.64.6). He combined the two posts, and tended to the horses himself, as laid down in the 'Asvasiksa' (the Science of Horses) (III.79.29). charioteer - cum-

= 77 the Although it is claimed that/young Ksatriya princes were not only trained in weapons, but also in the science of chariots, elephants and horses (1.102.17; I.123.7-8) only a few like Nala had talent for it and could master it. The horse, a close companion in battle, who often took the fatal balows upon himself, was naturally loved by the warrior and specially so by the charioteer, who was in close communion with his animals. A touching scene of the love between man and beast is enacted in the Drona- -parva when Arjuna, in the thick of a battle, dismounted from the chariot and fought on foot, while Krsna deyoked the horses, tended to their wounds, massaged them, bathed them, gave them water to drink and fed them, all in a shelter of arrows skillfully erected by Arjuna. The envigourated horses were re-yoked to the chariot and continued to draw the vehicle for the rest of the day (VII. 75.15-16), but both Krsna and Arjuna had taken a great risk to give them a new life. Not all horses could, ofcource, respond thus, and not all the charioteers could handle them so well. It was therefore, not uncommon, to make the horses drink some intoxicating brew which would infuse them with speed, vigour and courage before entering a battle (VII.87.54-55). Unfortunately they were often the target of enemy attack, the mace and the spear-like Sakti being the two weapons that often took a toll of fine horses. fease of POONA 6. LIBRARY

- 78 The best breed of horses came from Sindh (III. 148.8; VII.8.15, 22.17, 79.8, 115.21, 148.8) and Gandhara (1.216.8; II.54.22) in modern Pakistan, and from Kamboja (VII.22.3, 16, 35; VIII.27.8; X.13.1; XIII.119.12), Bahlika (VII.22.18, 35.36; XIII.106.16), Aratta (VII.35.36), Vanayu (VII.35.36) and certain hilly tracts (Parvatiya) (VII.35.36, 79.8) of modern Afghanistan. The Indus horses were well known right from the days of the Rgveda and in the Mahabharata too, they are the most conspicuous. The picture, however, underwent a change around the 2 nd-3 rd centuries B.C. with the entry of a number of foreign tribes in the North-west. Soon horses from Kamboja, Bahlika and Gandhara began to compete with those from the Indus. By the time of Kautilya (2 nd-1 st centuries B.C.), Kamboja, Aratta and Vanayu horses were considered the best along with those of the Sindhu, while those from Bahlika, Papeya, Sauvira and Taittala came next (Arthasastra II.30.47). The bh does not refer to many of these breeds, while those from the Tratta and Vanayu country are mentioned only once. Thus clearly, there is a slight time-gap between the Epic references to these North-Western breeds and those in the Arthasastra. None of these regions, however, are known to have had an indigenous breed of horses. The horse family, (Equidae) is represented in peninsular India only by the wild ass. The typical horse as such is not known to have existed in a wild state or in a natural habitat anywhere

= 79 in India (Prater 1965:227-228). All class breeds of horses, therefore, wheather in ancient or modern times, were imported from outside the country. Against this background, it is evident that certain regions of the North-West like Sindh, Gandhara, Kamboja, Bahlika etc. played a key-role in the procurement of horses in ancient India, particularly so from the 3 rd century B.C. onwards, when this area was flooded with wave after wake of foreign people. These nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes, constantly on the move, became the middlemen in a flourishing horse-trade, bringing the best breeds of the Central Asian steppes into India. In the earlier Vedic Period, Sindh was the main horse-trading centre; in the Mahabharata it is still so, but already it is giving way to new openings in the North-west. Some of the foreign tribes that inhabited this region like the Seyths, Huns, Tokharians, Turko-Chinese, Greeks etc. are mentioned in the Mahabharata, particularly in the Sabhaparva (II.47.19,26). None of these references can be placed any earlier than the 3 rd Century B.C. However, this does not warrant a conclusion that all the references to North-Western horses and asses in the Mahabharata are necessarily late, for both the horse and the ass have been prominent as the chariot-drawer and the beast -of-burden from remote Rgvedic times, when too, they came through the same region, but only through different contacts. As far as horses from other regions are concerned there is only a single reference, a rather queer simile, D FOONA 6 LIBRARY

- 80 wherein Draupadi with her lovely, lush hair and ample breasts and hips, is compared to a well-bred mare from e Kashmir (IV.8.11). Probably Kashmir horses did not compare will with those from the North-West, and do not occur any- -where else in the Epic. This reference from the Virata- - parva, therefore, should be looked upon as a freak or a later interpolation. A great many details regarding the physical features colour etc. of horses occurs in the Mahabharata There were horses: 1) white, like silver (VII.22.2), or the moon (VII.115.21, 122.79), or ivory (V. 55.12-14; VII.115.21), or a conchshell (VII.148.8), or a Hamsa (VII. 107.25), or cow's milk (VII.115.21), or Kunda flowers (VII.115.21), or chicken eggs (VIII.22.58). ii) flaming yellow, like gold (VII.22.61), or turmeric (VII.22.10), or the Masa (VII.22.21), and the Sarsapa (mustard) flowers. (VII.22.44). iii) red, like the Palala (VII.22.9), and the Sala flowers (VII.22.23).

- 81 iv) reddish-brown, v) orange, like the fur of a bear (VII.22.2), or like a backed clay pot (VII.22.13); but with a white belly like a hare's (VII.22.43). like Kauseya silk (VII.22.30, 38), or like the Kimsuka flowers (VII.22.54), or like the evening clouds (II.47.18). vi) bluish grey, like the feathers of a Casa bird (VII. 22.25), or like the blue lotus (utpala) (VII.22.51); but with white spots like the sky cluttered with stars (VII.22.40). vii) speckled, like a Saranga deer (VII.22.15), or like the partridge Tittira (II.25.6; V.55. 12-14), or like the belly of a Cakravaka bird (VII.22.47). viii) pinkish, a like/lotuses (padma) (VII.22.18), or like a dove (VII.22.33).

ix) deep green, x) dull brown, like the feathers of a parrot (II.47.18; VII.22.3). like Kraunea birds (VII.22.19). xi) a combination of red and white, like kalaya (green pea) flowers (VII.22.52). xii) a combination of black and white, the body like Naga grains and the backs white like curds (VII.22.45). xiii) a combination of red and black, the body red I with black spots like Andragopaka insect (II.47.18). xiv) a combination of simmering colours, like a peacock's (II.25.19). xv) colourfully stripped, like the rainbow (II.47.18). xvi) green with both the ears black (XIII.106.18). xvii) white with one black ear (III.115.12; V.104.6; XIV.4.12). xviii) white with black necks (VII.22.20). Of this colourful variety, the spotlessly white POONA & LIBRARY

- 83 horse was the most coveted, while the white horse with a single black ear was the rarest. Often warriors were known and recognized on the battlefield by the colour of their horses. Thus Arjuna was known for his four beauti- -ful white horses, while Drona for his team of powerful red horses. The finest breed of horses had the large, limpid eyes of a frog (II.25.6), white like Mallika flowers (VIII.22.18); the long flexible neck, and the agile feet of a peacock (VII.22.24, 28), and hooked noses like a parrot's beak (II.47.4). They were of a known ancestry and good behaviour (III.69.11), endowed with strength and youth (II.48.26; III.69.11), with broad shoulders and fine chins (III.69.12), could cover long distances (II.47.26; III.69.11), could run faster than the mind (II.47.18), and could overtake even the wind (III.69.12). Royal horses were maintained in specially built stables (asvasala) (III.69.10). They were fed on rice, milk and sugar (II.54.22; IV.86.21), and bathed and exercis- -ed daily. Before entering a battle, they were sometimes bathed with water specially concecrated with mantras and made to drink an intoxicating brew (VII.2.26, 87.54-55). Either two or four horses were yoked to the chariot, and they were always brought out in their regal finery. The Mahabharata mentions different components of horse-trappings. They are:

= 84 Khalina (VI.50.53; VIII.17.106-7), horses-bit or bridle. Kaksya (IV.49.6), girth. Yoktra Bhanda Valabandha Apida Chamara (VI.50.53; VII,88,14), the thong by which the horse is attached to the pole. (V.152.7; VII.2.26), horse- -trappings, harness. (VIII.17.106-7), the tail-band, or crupper. (VI.44.20, 86.16), a chaplet tied on the crown of the head. (VI.44.20; VIII.17.106-7; IX.8.12), little, white tufts of Yak hair fixed at two ends of the temple as decorative pieces. Uracchada (VI.92.67, 70), breast-plate. Paricchada (VII.122.79), back-cover. Astarana (VIII.17.106-7), cloth coverings. Sannaha (VII.122.80, 83), armour.

- 85 According to the Epic, these were either made of gold or lavishly decorated with gold, so that the horses presented a shining golden spectacle. Besides these necessary trappings, the horses were also loaded with gold chains around their neck, while their backs were covered with a delicate net-work of gold and pearls (1.216.8; III.48. 26; IV.36.3; VII.22.31, 41, 88. 14, 106.30, 115.21; VIII.59.2). with Next to the horse, the elephant too, was a status symbol - rather a symbol of royal grandeur an important role in warfare. The advantages were many. He could take as many as seven warriors on his back, carrying bows and arrows, swords and lances (V.152.13). Sling stones, catapults, pots of oil and other such inflammable matter could also be loaded onto his back. A large supply of arrows could be carried into the field, packed in quivers, which were strapped with leather thongs to the elephant's back (VIE. 50 49 ). Despite his akward bulk, the elephant is a very agile animal, and his mobility is no less than that of a chariot. The greatest advantage, however, was the brute force of the animal, which could be used in crucial moments to crush hundreds of enemy soldiers. The Epic is full of these stampedes (VII.19.41-52; VII.25 ). An elephant covered with metal armour and loaded with weapons, was almost as invincible as a strong fort or a massive mountain. PR POONA & LIBRARY

- 86 Therefore, it became customary for Ksatriya princes to acquire elephants as war-booty (I.105.17, 24), as tribute from lesser kings (II.48, 19-20, 25), and a dowry in weddings (1.190.15-16, 191.17, 213.47-48). The Pandavas acquired a hundred elephants from King Drupada when they wedded Draupadi (1.190.15-16), and another thousand from Krsna and the Yadavas when Arjuna wedded Subhadra (1.213.41-43). The elephants appeared on the battle-field clad in golden girths (kaksya) (11.48.19-20; IV.66.13), golden harness (bhanda) (VIII.27.9), golden chaplets (apida) (II.54.8-9), and metal armour, often chain-armour (II.48. 19-20; VI.19.30; VIII.17.113). They were guided and controlled with an ankusa or a totra, a metal hook or goad, by the mahout, known as the 'hastisiksaka' or 'mahamatra' (1.213.47-48; III.27.19; IV.31.3; VI.59.1, 91.52; VII.19.46, 52; VIII.27.9). Vaijayanti, a gold necklace, probably interspersed with flowers, and Graiveya, a heavy gold chain, were specially designed for an elephant, and were worn only by him (VII.35; VIII.14.45). He was also made to wear the gold strings worn by the horses (II.54.8.9; IV.17.15), a huge metal bell (1.213.47-48; VIII.17.113), and colourful cloth sheets and blankets (II.48.19-20; VI.53.20). The stone reliefs of Sanchi contain some of the earliest (1 st century B.C.) depictions of an elephant in all his finery. He wears a chaplet of

- 87 gold, delicately made with a design of lunates interspersed with oblongs. Suspended on his temples is a fine 4-stringed necklace of pearls, held in place at fixed intervals by a horizontal gold strip, certainly the gold- pearl net-work so often refered to in the Epic. His back is covered with thick coverlets and quilts of beautiful designs, geometric and floral, with gay tassels at the four ends. From just below his huge, flapping ear, appears a pleated cloth to which is tied a big, round metal bell (Marshall and Foucher 1940; Vol. II, Plate XLII). Thus there is every reason to believe that the Epic descriptions, gorgeous and a bit unreal, were actually true. A sixty year old elephant was considered to be in his prime (II.49.7; IV.12.20). The other qualities expected of an elephant were his well-documented ancestry, his good nature, and his allround training (1.191.17; II. 48.19-20). He had to have a huge, powerful body like a massive mountain (I.190.15-16, 213.47-48; II.48.19-20), and long firm tusks, capable of breaking open solid city- -gates (II.54.8-9; V.84.7). In war he had to have a controlled temper (II.54.8-9), able to withstand the noise and the din of the battlefield, for often it was noise that disturbed an elephant and made him run in panic, trampling underfoot the men of his own side. The capacity of a youthful elephant to be in rut, was much admired, and

- 88 such elephants were coveted for the terror they would create on the battlefield, among men and animals alike (1.213.47-48; II.48.19-20; IV.36.40; V.84.7). The Moh is familiar not only with captive and trained elephants, but also with the wild ones that roamed the forests on the banks of the Ganga and the Saraswati in small and big herds (III.25.18-19; XIV.1.2). Elephants in the wild seemed to have fascinated the Epic poets, who have drawn a beautiful picture of them through similes found everywhere in the Mahabharata As Bhima and Kicaka wrestle over Draupadi, they remind the poet of two youthful elephants battling in the month of spring over a female- -in-heat (IV.21.49); Bhima and Hidimba fighting a deadly combat appear like two sixty-year old elephants looked in a dual (I.141.23); at the death of Bhisma, the Kaurava army is as helpless as a young female elephant held at bay by a wolf, when the protecting male of the herd is dead (VII.1.26); the army when routed looks like a lotus- -pond uprooted by wild elephants (VI.96.34; VII.122.79), or like a forest of Nada reeds trampled underfoot by an angry elephant-in-rut (VII.27.20, 68.52). There are many others, and it was customary to refer to a powerful warrior like Arjuna, creating havoc amongst his enemies, as an elephant-in-rut (III.142.10). Camels play a very insignificant role in warfare and were mostly acquired by kings for transportation,

- 89 mainly through sandy river banks and desert tracts (IX. 34.19; XVI.8.33). They came exclusively from the NorthWest, from Kamboja and the trans-Indus (parisindhu) region (II.45.20, 47.11). From the North-west also came another beast of burden, the ass, often yoked to chariots which ran faster than those drawn by the horses (I.132.7). Ten thousand black C asses of a fine stopk, massively built, with/manes were brought as a gift for Yudhisthira by foreign and semiforeign tribes (like the China, Huna, Saka etc.) from far- -off regions beyond the Indus (II.47.21). All these references are certainly to the Indian Wild Ass, which is found in the Rann of Kutch and parts of the desert zone of North-Western India and Baluchistan. They are sturdy built, good stature, reddish grey in colour, with dark brown manes, capable of maintaining a speed of 30-32 miles per hour, over a considerable distance, and what is more are easily temed when young (Prater 1965: 227-8). Another swift runner was the mule particularly the female mule (asvatari), and a chariot yoked with them could easily cover 14 yojanas (about the same number of miles) in a single day (V.84.2). However, chariots drawn by asses and mules were used only as speedy modes of travel, and were never employed in war. Neither the ass, nor the mule, could compare with the sensitive and intelligient horse, who could be trained

= 90 to go into a battle. The dog was the only other animal closely associat- -ed with human beings, totally dependant on human habitational sites (gramya pasu) (XII.117.18). the Feelings for a dog wavered between two extremes. On one hand, is evident a great contempt for the character of the dog who is always at the feet of his master even when treated badly (1.110.20-21), and on the other hand, a prince like Yudhisthira who refused to enter the gates of heaven without his companion, the dog (XVII.3.7). As it is common for dogs in Indian villages today, to feed on refuse dump and to scourge on dead carcasses of other animals, so was it in ancient times. Once or twice, dogs even came out on the battlefield of Kuruksetra to feed on the dead human bodies rotting in the dust (VI.112.131; VII.29.40). These were probably the stray dogs, with no masters and no homes. Very often when such dogs approached a place of sacrifice where food was cooked as offering to gods, they were driven away rather rudely, lest they polute the sacred food with their unclean mouths! (1.3.2; III.253.20; XIII.90.15). This obsession with the unclean habits of a dog still persists in Hindu society, and the same relationship of love and hate between man and dog has not changed through the centuries. Herds of dogs were however, maintained by Chandala and other low-caste tribes, who made a living by hunting and POONA LIBRARY

- 91 trapping deer and other wild animals. The dogs were close companions in their hunting forays, but in times of scarcity even they were not spared, and their flesh was as welcome that as of any other animal. To the majority of the population, however, the idea of eating dog-meat was totally repulsive, either because he was an unclean animal or a dear household pet. The "dog-eating" (shavpaca) section of the Chandalas were, therefore, looked down upon as the lowliest of/lowly (XIII.48.21). (B) Wild Mammals 13) CAMARA 14) GAVAYA 15) GOMAYU : (Bos grunniens), the Yak (III.98.113-116). the (Bos gavenus) or (Bos gaurus), the Gayal or Gaur (XIII.88.7). : (Canis aureus), the Jackal, also known as 'Kostruka' and 'argala' or 'srgala' (II.68.15; III.61.8, 248.17). 16) KHADGA : (Rhinocerous unicornis), the Rhinocerous (VIII.11.6; IX.44.79). 17) MAHISA : (Bubalus bubalis), wild buffalo (1.68.5) 18) MRGA : either a deer or an antelope or

a gazelle or all three; also known as 'harina' (1.166.5; III.61.23, 150.21). The different species are : 1) RURU : (III.61.2), 11) AINA : (III.251.11; V.56.41), 111) NYARKU : (III.251.11), iv) SARABHA: (IX.45.76) v) KURANGA: (IX.45.75-76) all different types of antelopes, whose identification - 92 becomes difficult due to a lack of differentiating details: vi) SAMBHARA : (Cervus uniclolur), the Sambhara deer (III.251.11); vii) KRSNAMRGA : (Antelope cervicapra), the Black Buck (III.47.7); viii) PRSATA (Axis axis), the spotted deer (III.251.11; XIII.88.7); 1 x) SARANGA : another spotted dear (III.129.15; VIII.27.97); and

x) RAKU : with a wooly fur (11.43.26). 19. NAKULA : (Herpestes edwardsi), the - 93 mangose (II.44.76). RK SA : (Melursus ursinus), the bear, 20. RKSA 21. SARABHA 22. SASA 23. SVAVIDHA also known as 'bhalluka' (1.60.60; XII.117.6). a fabulous eight-legged beast, which could overpower even a lion or an elephant (III.134. 14). (Lepus nigricollis), the Hare (IX.44.74). : literally "one who injures a dog", a porcupine, (Hystrix indica), also known as 'salyaka', "one who is full of arrows" (IX.43.27). The porcupine, rolled up into a tight stone-like ball, always fascinates the village dog who tries to sniff and paw at it, and as a result is hit by the arrow-like points descharged by the porcupine. The name 'Svavidha' is therefore, as apt as it is funny. POONA & ANYERT

24) SIAHA 25) SRMARA 26) TARAK SU 27) VAN ARA 28) VARAKA 29) VIKA 30) VYAGHRA .. - 94 (Panthera leo), the lion, also known as 'kesarin' and 'mrgaret', 'the king of the beasts' (1.68.5,219; III.146.15). : (1.60.60-64) ? : (Hysens hysena), the Hyaena (1.219.1). : Monkey or Ape, also known as 'kapi', 'hari', 'sakhemrga', and 'golangula'. None of the different types can be recognized (1.60.62; III.61.61; VII.29.19). (Sus scrofa Cristatus), the wild Boar (1.68.5). (Canis lupus), the wolf, also known as 'salavrka' (III.170.43; VII.1.26). : (Panthera tigris), the tiger, also known as • Sardula ' ( 1.60.60; I.219.1-2).

- 95 The lion and the tiger with their ferociousness, agility, strength, and a capacity to terrorise the jungles, excercised a fascinating influence on the minds of the Epic poets, which is revealed in bold and graphic similes throughout the Mahabharata (I.141.15, 166.36; II.19.25, 68.15; IV.16.17; V.57.20; VI.21.58, 112.21; VII.76.30; VIII.46. 30). Most of the wild species were game for the avid hunting Ksatriyas. Some like the lion, tiger, hyaena, wolf and the bear, were hunted mostly for sport and adventure. But generally hunting was combined with a search for animal flesh and skin. Thus, the boar, the buffalo, and particularly the deer became the most ruthlessly hunted animals of the wild. Venison was a great favorite and deer-skin highly prized. Of the different species of deer, Ruru was the most familiar, and its hide, along with that of the Ranku and the Black Buck was much sought after. More than the hunting expeditions of the Ksatriya princes, the greater menance to wild life came from the professional hunters and trappers, who made a living by the sale of animal flesh and skin (IX.29.22-23). Thus unwary deer were regularly trapped in nets during night (XII.136.23-25), and boars were hunted down with the help of dogs (VII.157.8). There are frequent references to tiger-skin and furry bear-hide used as

- 96 upholstry covers in chariots (VII.150-11-12; VIII.26.56). The lion and the tiger were also kept in captivity, and in the Virataparva, Bhima fought single-handed combats with them much to the cruel amusement of the Matsya court, the including women (IV.12.27-28). The difference between the hunting of the princes and of the professional hunters, lay probably, in the mode of hunting with poisonous and non-poisonous darts. It is emphatically laid down at least thrice in the Mahabharata that the Ksatriya princes were always careful to use only "pure" arrows, as contrasted with the impure or the poison-tipped ones, when hunting wild animals (III.37.41, 47.4, 157.7). The prime concern was, probably, to avoid contaminating the flesh meant for human consumption. Poison-tipped darts, however, do not necessarily render poisonous the the entire flesh of the victim, although they bring about instantaneous death in many cases. Even today, there are tribes in Africa and India who make use of poison to kill animals, birds and even fish, whose flesh they later consume without any ill-effects. The south African Bushmen, the Maidu of Central California, the Ainu of Hokkaido and the Pygmies of the African Rain-forest are well-known for their use of poison-tipped darts. All kinds of vegetable, insect, and snake poison are used in combination with each other, some stopping the heart directly, some working on the nervous system, others paralyzing the muscles. The

- 97 use of these arrows allowed the primitive hunter to track down every type of animal, even the very large and swift ones, despite his short arrows, and small, weak bow, and reduced the distance he has to cover in pursuit of the victim until it dropped. Thus the Ainu are able to conduct an orderly mass slaughter of deer in season (Coon 1972: 80-81) and the Bushmen can hunt down anything from an antelope to an elephant and a lion with ease (Sollas 1924:460). Within India tribes like the Andamanese, Kadars, Gonds, Santhals, Ao Nagas, and Khasis make use of poison from plants, trees, barks and creepers to poison the waters before fishing. As soon as the fish begin to flounder to the surface they are caught in nets or even in hands (Chakraborti and Mukherji 1971: 20, 42, 78, 118, 176, 199). However, none of the Indian tribes at present are known to use poisoned darts for big-game hunting, even for dear and boar hunting, but one can not preclude the possibility that they may have done so in antiquity. The use of poisoned darts in warfare and the likelihood of their being acquired from local tribesmen is discussed in a later chapter on weapons. Against this background, the emphasis on pure arrows in the Mahabharata has to be interpreted as a moral compul- - sion, as an act of mercy to those helpless victims, whose death could not be avoided, but whose sufferings could be alliviated. There were times when Ksatriya princes like

- 98 the Pandavas were as much dependent for their immediete survival on hunted flesh as any other hunting and food gathering tribe of the forest. Yet they refused to use poisoned darts which would have made their strenuous task much easier, out of sheer revulsion for inflicting a cowardly deal on innocent animals. They must, therefore, have been skilled bowmen in possession of superior weapons, larger and stronger bows, and long, feathered, iron-tipped arrows which could price the vitals of an animal even from a long distance. The use of poison-tipped darts takes away much of the adventure of sport-hunting which can not then be defended on any moral grounds. Professional hunters, on the other hand, must have freely made use of poison, and therefore, all the more reason for the Ksatriyas to disassociate themselves from this cruel and dastardly practice. pierce RODENTS 1) MUSAKA (Rattus rattus), the Common House Rat, also known as 2) CHUCHUNDART 1) SARPA akhu' (I.13.13, 41.4). : the Common House Shrew (XIII.112.103). REPTILES : Snake, known by a number of words such as 'bhujaga',

'naga', 'vyala', 'uraga', 'pannaga', 'jimhaga', 'sarisrpa' and 'bilaukasa' (1.48.19, 133.20; II.57.3; III.142.27; II.112.118; VII.8.28, 131.38; IX.1.45; I.1.32). - 99 of the few different types mentioned, only one can be identified: (1) Pithasarea or Ajagara: the Boa Constrictor or Python (III.36.21, 60.20) (11) Dundubha 1 a non-poisonous Snake (111) Ahi (iv) Krsnasarpa (1.10.3), as contrasted with 1 a poisonous snake (VIII.14.7). : probably the Black Cobra (VII.101.16) 1 2) KRKALASA : the hizard or Chameleon (IX.44.81) INSECTS were known by general terms such as krmi, kita and kitaka (1.39.29.85.19). POONA LIBRARY

1) ALARKA-KRMI : a (fantastic) 8-legged biting insect (XII.3.12-13) 2) BHRAMARA : the Bee, also known as 3) DAMSA 'satpada', 'having six legs (II. 146. 20, 22.9.13) : Gnat or Gadfly (III.142.27) 4) INDRAGOP AKA the insect Chocheneal or 5) JHILLIKA the Lady Bird (II.47.18; IV.38.24) : Cricket, also known as 'cillika' (III.6.11; VII.29.19) : the Fire-fly (IV.43.9) 6) KHADYOTA 7) MAKSIKA : Fly (III.142.27) 8) MASAKA : Mosquito (III.142.27) 9) PATANGA 10) PIPILIKA 11) SALABHA Moth, also known as galabha' (II.17.15; V.56.27) : Ants (1.68.54; III.122.13) : Locust Bee; but the word - 100

12) URN ANABHI 1) GODKA 2) GRAHA 3) KARKATI 4) KURMA also often denotes the ordinary moth. One of the favorite similes of the Epic is to compare a shower of arrows to a locust herd, descending on the earth (IV.43.11, 48.18; V.182.13; VI. 54.5; VII.29.37; VIII.17.69, 38.4; IX.12.38) : Spider (VII.99.3; XII.241.2) - 101 SEMI-ACQUATIC SPECIES : Iguana, either the Gosampa or the alligator (IX.43.27). 1 Alligator, also known as 'nakra' (I.123.69; III.268.3) : female Crab (III.252.9) : Tortoise or Trutle, also known as 'kacchapa', 'one who lives by the swamps' (1.25.17, 217.9)

5) MAKARA: Crocodile : Crocodile (III.166.3) 6) MANDUKA : Frog, also known as 'dardura' (II.25.6; III.179.8-9, 190.30) ACQUATIC SPECIES 1) MATSYA : Fish, also known as 'mina' (1.217.9; III.170.46) A few varities are mentioned, but are all unidentifiable. (1) Jhasa, a large fish (1.219.28) (11) Timingala, a very huge fish. (III.166.3) (111) Timi, a small variety (III.166.3) 2) SIMSUMARA or SISUMARA: literally "child- -killer", the Porpoise or Dolphin (Delphinus Gangeticus) or (Platanista gangeticus) (X.7.18) - 102 D. POONA 6 LIBRARY

- 103 All these acquatic and semi-acquatic species were found in the sea and the river (I.208.16; VII.87.10). Fish and tortoise were also bred in artificial lotus- -ponds constructed in gardens and inside a sabha-hall (II.3.28). The purpose was probably decorative, but fish and turtle do figure in the diet of the ancients (XII.88.5, 164.4-6). Fishing was practiced by professional fishermen in big rivers like the Ganga, which were teeming with fish (XII.135.4, 11, 13; XIII.50. 14-15). There is no direct evidence of turtles being caught for food, but it is implied in a verse from the Santiparva which forbids a Brahmin to eat frogs, but allows a tortoise (XII.37.17). The frog was a useful creature who destroyed small insects in the field, as well as in the water, and was therefore, protected. The poor tortoise, on the other hand, was not even gauranteed this limited protection, and it is quite likely that a large number were killed for food. Even a cursory comparison of the faunal data of the Mahabharata with other ancient literary sources reveals, that it had much in common with the Vedic literature. Most of the species, whether birds, mammals, rodents, insects or acquatic creatures, were already known to some

or the other Vedic text, a large majority to the Rgveda proper. Very few species are, as it were, typical to the Epic itself. - 104 Thus very little new material seems to have been added at a later period. The only glaring exception is that of a number of birds (nearly about one half of the the total number of birds mentioned) which the Mahabharata has in common with/Buddhist Pali literature. Most of them figure hardly a few times, often not more than once or twice, suggesting a late entry into the Epic text. There are of course a few exceptions to the rule like: Kurari, the Osprey, Sarasa, the Sarasa Crane, Sataptra, the Woodpecker, Jivajivaka, the Pheasant, and Karandava, the Grey geese, which occur much more frequently. The most striking thing about this group of birds, however, is that they are concentrated heavily in Book III, the Aranyakaparva, where the poet has let loose his fancy in the description of the Gandhamadana forest on the Himalayan slopes. Almost any and every species of trees and birds was represented in these exotic woods, irrespective of the Himalayan climate. Thus chapters (adhyayas) 150-155 of this Parva, particularly chapter 155, have certainly

- 105 been retouched at a later date, by some Nature enthusiast. A typical example is of the grey geese Karandava, which are mentioned about 7-8 times is the Epic, but always and only in the Aranyakaparva. Next to this Parva, Parvas XII and XIII, Santi and Anusasana too, contain many a references to these birds. Archaeological spadework of the past 25 years C has brought forth a wealth of animal remains from all over India. They occur in all levels, from Chalgolithic and earlier to 1200 A.D. The bones are generally found in human habitational deposits and are very often charred, split and fragmented beyond recognition. Most of the examples belong to domesticated species like cattle, goat, sheep, pig etc. However, much of wild life, as well as birds, rodents, reptiles and semi-acquatic species are also represented, though on a much smaller scale and very often in stray isolated cases. This immense and rich material can not, as yet, be fully utilized, because remains from many sites have still to be scientifically analyzed and reported. Secondly, the presence or absence of a particular species at any given site, is not the final word in the matter. POSHA & LIBRARY

- 106 Archaeological finds, being more often a matter of chance, it is not unlikely that the same site may, at a later date, bring forth fresh evidence, hitherto unknown. One is therefore, not justified to undertake a comparative study of these remains with the available literary data. Two things, however, stand out conspicuously, a supported both by literary and archeological evidence. First and foremost, the ancient people seem to have maintained large herds of cattle, cows as well as probably buffaloes, as milch animals. Secondly, they seem to have been total non-vegetarians, with beef, pork and mutton forming an important part of their diet. Many of the domesticated as well as the wild species whose flesh was consumed by the ancients are discussed in their historical contexts, in a later chapter, dealing with 'Food habits' in the Mahabharata