Chapter 2 - Details of Flora in the Mahabharata

It is indeed a pleasant surprise to come across a wide variety of floral details in the Mahabharata Large number of trees, creepers, shrubs, fruits, flowers, grasses etc. are mentioned, generally in descriptions of forests, mountains, rivers, pilgrims places, cities, and in poetic simile of all kinds. These details are useful in so far as they provide the geographical background to the Mahabharata All the floral details have been classified/in below an alphabetical order : 1) AGARU : (XII.64.18), Agallochum, Amyris Agallocha 2) AJATAKA : (III.155.40), ? 3) AJAJI : (XIII.91.40), Cumins, Cuminum Cymimum

4) AKSA : (III.174.23), (1) Elecarpus Gamtrus providing the rosary bead 'rudraksa' or (11) Terminalia Belerica 5) ALABU : (II.59.11), the bottle-gourd, Langenaria vulgaris 6) ALAMBUSA : (VII.84.29), the red pumpkin 7) AMBUJA : (VIII.32.50), the lotus, Nymphoea Nelumbea 8) AMALAKA : (III.61.4), Emblic Myrobalan 9) AMRA : (II.16.28), the mango tree, = 24 Mangifera Indica 10) AMRATAKA: (III.155.40), Spondias mangifera 11) ARKOTA or ANKOLA : (1.199.41), Alangium Hexapetalum 12) ARIMEDA : (VII.153.25), (1) Vachellia Farnesianah or (ii) the Fetid Mimosa 13) ARISTA : (III.61.4), Sapindus deteregen Roxb., The soap-berry tree, whose seed is used for washing.

14) ARJUNA : (III.25.17), Terminalia Arjuna - 25 15) ARKAPUSPA: (III.230.14), Calatropis Gigantea 16) ASOKA : (III.61.38), Jonesia Ashoka 17) ASTAPADIKA LATA : (XIII.54.6), a creeper, probably a wild jasmine. 18) ASVATTHA : (I.189.22), Ficus religiosa, the holy fig tree, also known as Pippala. 19) ATARUSAPUSPA : (VII.22.28) the flower of the shrub, Justicia Adhatoda 20) ATASI : (V.92.52), Linium Usitatissimum, the Linseed or common flax. 21) ATIPUSPA : (VIII.48.4), ? 22) ATIMUKTAKA: (IX.36.60), "surpassing pearls in whiteness", a shrub known A as 'mogra' in the vernacular. 23) BADARA : (VII.153.24), Zyzyphus jujuba 24) BAKULA : (I.199.40), Mimusops Elengi 25) BALVAJA : (1.134.14), Eleusine Indica, a species of coarse grass, not liked by cattle, but from which a sturdy rope is made.

= 26 26) BIBHITAKA: (III.61.5), Terminalia bellerica 27) BIJAPURAKA: (III.155.40), Citrus medica, "a seed-filled" citron. 28) BILVA : (III.61.5), Aegle mermelos, the wood-apple tree. 29) CAMPAKA : (I.116.3), Michelia champaka 30) CANDANA : (XIII.63.30), Santalum album, the sandalwood tree. 31) CANA : (XIII.112.62), Cicer arientunum, the horse gram. 32) GIRI : (IX.53.2), a plant, from the fibres of which cloth was made. 33) CUTA : (1.116.3), Mangifera indica, the mango tree. 34) DADIMA : (III.155.40), the pomegranate tree. 35) DEVADARU : (III.175.10). Pinus devadaru, the Deodara. 36) DHAVA : (III.61.3), (1) Grislea tomentosa or (11) Anogeissus latifolia

37) DHANVANA : (XII.87.14), Alhagi maurorama - 27 38) DIVARA : (III.155.45), ? 39) KAPATRA : (III.129.6), Ocimum gratissimum 40) ERAKA : (XVI.4.34), a kind of grass with emollient and diluent properties. 41) GODHUMA : (III.188.43), wheat, Hardeum Linn. 42) GRIJANA : (XIII.91.39), (i) a small variety of garlic or (ii) carrot root 43) HARICANDANA: (III.175.10), the yellow sandalwood. 44) HARIDRA : (III.186.66), turmeric, Curcuma longa. 45) HARITAKA : (III.61.5), Terminalia Chebula, the yellow myrobalan tree. 46) INCUDA : (III.174.23), Terminalia Cattapa, the Indian wild almonds. 47) ISIKA : (XII.240.22), a type of grass. PRONA & ANYMERT

48) JAMBU : (1.199.42), Eugenica Jambalana, the rose-apple tree. = 28 49) JASA : (III.230.23), The China-rose 50) JIRAKA : (III.155.40), Cumins, Cuminum Cymimum. 51) KADAMBA : (III.25.17), Nautea Kadamba, with an orange - coloured fragrant bloom. 52) KADALI : (II.63.11), the plantain, Musa sapientum 53) KALAYA : (III.112.62), Pisum arvense, the green-pea 54) KALASAKA : (XIII.63.23), Morava Korinii. 55) KALHARA : (III.155.49), the white esculent water-lily. 56) KALIYAKA or KALEYAKA: (III.175.10), the fragrant wood of the Black Aloe tree.. 57) KAMALA : (III.155.49), Nelumbium, a pale red or rose - coloured lotus. 7

= 29 58) KAPITTHA : (III.155.42), (1) Feronica lemonia or (11) Feronica elephantanum 59) KARAVIRA : (III.155.43), (1) Oleandar or (11) Nerum odorum 60) KARIRA or KARIRI : (III.174.23) Capparis Aphylla, a thorny plant growing in deserts and fed upon by camels. 61) KARNIKARA: (VII.111.31), Pterospermum acetifolium 62) KASMARI or KASMARYA: (IX.36.58), Gmelina arborea 63) KESARA : (XIII.107.80), saffron 64) KETAKI : (1.199.40), Pandarus adoratissimus 65) KHADIRA : (III.63.4), Acacea Catechu 66) KHARJURA : (III.63.3-5), the date-palm, Phonix Sylvestris. 67) KICAK AVENU: (II.48.2), a hollow bamboo

- 30 68) KIMSUKA : (VIII.9.25), Butea frondosa 69) KODRAVA : (XIII.91.38), Paspalum Scorbiculatum or 'kodon', an inferior grain. 70) KOKANADA : (III.155.49), the flower of the red water-lily. 71) KOVIDARA : (VI.50.89), Bahunia variegata 72) SAUDRA : (III.155.41), Michelia champeka. 73) KUBJA : (1.199.42), Achyranthrus aspera 74) KULATTHA : (XIII.112.62), Delichos biflorus 75) KUMUDA : (III.266.3), Nymphaea esculenta, the white water lily. 76) KUNDA : (XIII.14.30), a kind of Jasmine, Jasminum multiforum or pubescene 77) KURABAKA : (III.155.58), the red Amarantha or the red Barleria

78) KUSA : (II.8.29), Poa cynosuroides, a grass with long pointed stalks, sacred in many rituals. 79) KUTAJA : (III.155.45), Wrightia Antidysentrica 80) LAKUCA or LIKUCA : (III.155.41) Artocarpus Lakucha, a kind of bread-fruit tree. 81) LASUNA : (VIII.30.15), garlic 82) LODHRA : (III.61.4), Symplocos Racemosa 83) MADHU or MADHUKA: (IX.53.2), Bassia latifolia, the Mahua tree. 84) MANDARA : (X 111.20.36), Erythrine Indica, the Coral tree. 85) MASA : (III.268.34), Phaseolus mungo 86) MESASRNGA: (XIV.43.3), (1) Odina Pinnata or (11) Gymnema Sylvestre - 31

= 32 87) MOCA : (III.155.41), the plantain, Musa sapientum. 88) MUCUKUNDA: (XIII.54.4), Pterospermum Suberifolium 89) MUDGA : (XIII.112.62), 'mug', Phaseolus aureus. 90) MUNJA : (III.12.49), 91) NADA Saccharum sara, a species of sedge-like grass which grows to a height of ten feet, and is used in basket-making. : (VII.27.20), a reed 92) NAGAPUSPA: (1.199.40), (i) Mesua Roxburghii or (11) Rottlera tinctoria or(iii) Michelia champaka 93) NALINI : (11.3.27), Nelumbium Speciosum, the lotus creeper POONA LIBRARY

94) NARIK ELA : (III.155.40), the coconut palm, Cocos nucifera. 95) NIPA : (I.199.39), (1) Neutea Kadamba or (11) Ixora Bandhuka or (iii) a species of Asoka 96) NIVARA : (III.179.14), a species of wild rice. 97) NYAGRODHA : (IV.22.20), Ficus indica or Ficus benghalensis, the Banyan tree, also known as 'vata'. 98) PADMA : (1.199.45), the red lotus, Nelumbium Speciocum. 99) PALANDU : (XIII.91.39), Allium cepa, the onion 100) PALASA : (1.27.8), the blossom of Butea frondosa - 33

101) PANASA : (III.155.41), the jack-fruit tree, Artocarpus heterophyllum or Artocarpus integrifolia 102) PARK AJA : (II.3.28), "mud-born", a lotus, the species Nelumbium speciosum, whose flowers close in the evening. 103) PARAVATA: (III.155.41), Diospyros embryopteris 104) PARIBHADRAKA: (1.116.3-4), Erythrine fulgens 105) PARIJATA: (1.199.42), Erythrine indica, the Coral tree. 106) PARUSAKA: (IX.36.59), (1) Grewia 107) PATALA asiatica = 34 or (11) Xylocarpus granthathum (1) (1.199.42), Bignonia Suaveolens, the tree bearing the trumpet flowers.

- 35 (ii) (III.155.45), the stalk of Sorghum or the Indian millet. 108) PILU or PILUSA : (VIII.30.24), (1) Careya arborea or (11) Salvedora Persica 109) PIPPALA : (III.296.43), Ficus religiosa 110) PLAKSA : (III.91.10), Ficus infectoria 111) PRIYALA : (III.61.5), Buchanania Latifolia 112) PRIYANGU : (III.87.2), (1) Panicum Italicum or (ii) Aglai Odorata 113) PULAKA : (III.174.7), a coarse grain 114) PUNDARIKA: (III.155.49), the white lotus 115) PUNNAGA : (1.199.40), (1) Rottleria tinctoria or (ii) Calophyllum inophyllum 116) PUSK ARAP ATRA: (VII.22.59), the leaves of a blue lotus.

117) PUTIKA : (III.37.32), = 36 a species of plant serving as a substitute for the usa Soma plant, perhaps Guilandina Bondue. 118) ROHITAKA: (III.174.23), Andersonia rohitaka 119) ROHINIPADAPA: (1.25.31), (1) Andersonia rohitaka or (11) Ficus indica 120) RAJAMASA: (IIII.63.31), Delichos Catiana 121) SAHAKARA: (III.155.60), a fragrant mango tree. 122) SALLAKI : (XIII.101.39), Boswellia Thurifera 123) SANTANAKA: (III.230.23), the Kalpa or the desire-yielding tree, one of the trees in Indra's heaven. 124) SAPTAPARNA: (III.155.45), (1) Alstonia scholaris or (11) Mimosa pudica ka POONA LIBRARY

- 37 125) SARALA : (XIII.10.38), Pinus longifolia, a species of pine tree. 126) SARJA : (I.134.14), Vatica or Shores robusta, also known as Sala. 127) SARSAPA : (VIII.22.44), Brassia Campestori, the mustard plant. 128) SAUBHANJANAKA: (XIII.91.39), Moringa pterygesperma 129) SALA or SALA: (V.58.10), Vatica or Shorea robusta 130) SALI : (II.54.24), rice 131) SALMALI: (IX.15.57), Bombax hyptaphyllum or Shalmalia Malabarica, the Seemul or Silk-cotton tree. 132) SANI : (VII.153.24), Prospis spicigera 133) SYAMAKA : (VII.153.24), Panicum frumentaceum, 98338 POONA 6

134) SANA also known as samyaka. : (I.134.14), Grotoloria juncea, the hemp plant. 135) SIMSAPA : (XIV.43.3), Dalbergia sisoo 136) SIRISA : (III.174.23), Acacia Sirisha 137) SITAPAKI: (XIII.91.40), (1) Sida cardifolia or (ii) Ab arus precatorius 138) SLESATAKA or SLESMATAKA: (III.134.26), Cordiamyk or Cordia latifolia 139) REGATAKA: (XII.91.40), Trapibispinosa, the vernacular 'Singada'. 140) SINDHUVARA: (III.296.43), - 38 Vitex Negundo 141) SNUHA : (III.174.23), Euphorbia antiquorum 142) SPANDANA: (XII.150.34), also known as 'Syandana', a tree POONA & LIBRARY

whose wood was used for making chariots in Vedic times. 143) TAGARA : (XIII.107.80), Cassia oriculata. It could also be the same as Tagaraka, Tebernaemontana coronaria, from which was prepared a fragrant powder. 144) TALA : (VII.145.23), = 39 Borassus flabilliformis, the palmyra palm. 145) TAMALA : (III.155.62), Xanthocymus pictorius 146) TANDULA : (II.54.25), a variety of rice. 147) TARALA : (III.155.46), 148) TILA : the Thorn-apple (XII.204.9), Sessamum indicum 149) TILAKA : (III.155.59), (1) Clerodendrum phlomoides or (11) Symplocos racemosa

150) TINDUKA : (III.155.43), Diospyros embryopteris 151) TUNGA : (III.175.10), Rottleria tinctoria 152) TV AC AGARU: (XII.163.8), the tree or the bark of Cinnamomum Zylomicum 153) UDDALAKA : (XIII.54.4) 154) UDUMBARA: (XII.240.21), Ficus glomerata 155) UTPALA : (III.12.48), the blue lotus, Nymphoea Coerulea 156) VANJULA : (XIII.54.5), ? (1) Dalbergia Ongeinensis or (ii) Jonesia Ashoka or (iii) Calamus Rotang or (iv) Hibiscus Mutabilis 157) VANIRA : (III.87.2), a sort of cane or red, Calamus Rotang 158) VAMSA : (1.132.9,11), the abmboo - 40

159) VARANAPUSPI LATA: (XIII.54.6) ? 160) VARUNAKA : (XIII.14.29-31), Cratoera Roxaburghii 161) VASIVRESA: (V.152.6), ? 162) VATA : (III.155.41-46), Ficus Indica, the Banyan tree 163) VATSANABHA : (XIII.14.29) ? 164) VENU : (II.59.5), the bamboo 165) VERASA : (III.296.43), the rattan or cane, Calamus Rotang 166) VETRA : (XII.83.46), a large cane 167) VIRANA : (I.13.13), a kind of grass 168) VRIHI : (XIII.94.27), rice, Oryza Sativa 169) YAVA : (XIII.94.27), Hardeum vulgare, - 41 barley. FOONA LIBRARY

Of this wide variety only a few plants are conspicuous by a constant reference to them, while most others have to be picked out with difficulty from the huge mass of Epic verses. The prominent ones are 1) Sala m 2) Kisuka 3) Fig trees like Asvattha, Nyagrodha, Udumbara, and Plaksa 4) Lotuses of all types and colours 5) Tala, the palmyra palm 6) Flowering trees like Asoka and Karnikara 7) Fruit trees like Kadali Amra, and Badara = 42

- 43 8) Bamboo, known variously as Vetasa, Vetra, Vansa, and Venu All the above-mentioned plants have a minimum of 9-10 references each. Others, mentioned less often can be looked upon as insignificant. A few of the prominent ones are elaborated below: The Sala (Shores Robusta) is the single most prominent tree in the Mahabharata, the most common fixture of the land-scape familiar to the Epic poets. The presence of this tall and stately tree, never leafless, could not be over-looked in and around cities like Indraprastha (1.199.40), Hastinapura and Varanavata (I.143.24), along the Saraswati (III.25.17, 26.1), Ganga and the Gomati (IV.16.7) lined with thick Sala forests, and Dvaitvana (III.26.1, 174.23), where the Pendevas spent a part of their exile being one of them. The Sala was also a familiar sight in the Himalayan region (1,106.8; III.155.46), as well as in the Vindhyan forests around the Naisedha country (I.204.6; III.61.3). The present day distribution of the Sala agrees well with the ancient records. At present the Sala is located all over Punjab, Narayana, U.P., Bihar, Bengal, Assam, M.P., the northen Coromandel coast and the Godavari basin in A.P. It runs in two irregular but fairly defined belts separated by the Gangetic plain. POONA 6 LIBRARY

= 44 The northen or sub-Himalayan belt extends from the Kangara valley in the Punjab to the Darrang and Nowgong districts in Assam. Further North-west, the cold is too severe, and further east the climate is too moist. The Southern or central belt extends from the Coromandel coast west to the Panchamarhi sandstone hills and south to the Godavari river (Brandis 1971:69). The Epic often refers to 'sarja-rasa', the juice or exudation of the Sala tree (I.132.9,11; V.152.5; XII. 87.14) used as an inflamatory substance in warfare. Balls of cloth dipped into it, were probably set on fire and hurled at the enemy scaling the fortifications. Sarja- -rasa was also used as an incense along with sandalwood, black aloe, bedellium etc. (XIII.101.39-41). It is interesting to note that the Sala juice, a cleo-resin called soldammar, obtained from the stem, is still used as an ingredient in the preparation of varnishes and as an incense. The sold ammar distillation gives "chua oil" which is employed in perfumary, whereas 'Sala butter, extracted from the seeds is used as an illuminant and even for cooking (Maheshwari and Singh 1965: 146). Rivalling the Sala for equal prominence is Kinsuka (Butea frondosa), a medium-sized tree which is covered with a riot of red and orange flowers in the Spring months of February and March. So impressive is the sight of the tree turned a bloody red, that it keeps on

- 45 constantly comming to the mind of the poet everytime he describes a fierce dual, wherein the rivals are drenched in blood. To his poetic imagination they are not warriors fighting out a bloody war, but blooming Kimsukas in all their glory of orange and red. The use of this simile is such a recurring phenomenon (mentioned as many as 30 times) that it just can not be overlooked (III.264.32; IV.53.51; V.180.31; VI.43.13; VII.14.23; VIII.20.16; IX.18.24). No other simile in the Epic has this frequency. Certainly the poets of the Epic did not lack in imagina- -tion. The insistence on the flowering Kinsuka alone, therefore, to describe a bloody battle-scene, not only emphasises the magnificience of the sight, but also the profusion of the tree in the surrounding landscape, where nothing else stood out against the flaming Kimsuka. geographical location of the tree in the Epic is more or less the same as that of the Sala. The tree is a native of India, most common to the forest tracts of Central India and the Western Ghats, but is also found in the dry regions of Bengal and Bihar, and to some extent in U.P. and Punjab upto a height of 1000 meters (Cowen 1950:3-4). The third place of prominence goes not to any single tree, but to a group of sister trees, all belonging to the genera Ficus. This group includes four very prominent trees of the Indian landscape : 1) Nyagrodha or Vata (Ficus indica), The POONA & LIBRARY

11) Asvattha or Pippala (Ficus religiosa), 111) Udumbara (Ficus glomerata), iv) Plaksa (Ficus infectoria). -46 All four were regarded as sacred, the Nyagrodha or Vata particularly so. They abounded in holy places like Gaya (III.93.13), Saptasaraswata (IX.36.58) and Kuruksetra (IX.53.2), where pilgrims flocked to worship them. Even otherwise they were a familiar sight in and around cities, along river banks, and in thick forests, providing shade and shelter and their sweet fruit to men, animals and birds alike. Lotuses, white (pundarika), red (padma) and blue (utpala), lotus creepers (padmini and nalini), lotus leaves (puskara patra), and lotus ponds (puskarini) where a great favorite with the Epic poets, their beauty and fragrance being often alluded to (1.61.93; II.3.27; III.155.49-50, 266.3; VI.3.10; VII.22.51, 128.19; VIII.65.6; X.1.20; XI.16.43). Tala (Borassus flabiliformis) palms appear prominently in similes of all kinds. Heads of warriors cut off from the body and rolling down to the ground are like Tala fruits brought down from the tree by a strong wind (III.99.5; VI.82.21); the fleeting joys of life are like the fleeting shade of Tala trees (II.71.43), and the multicoloured banners fluttering atop the chariots are like the fan-shaped Tala leaves swaying in

On - 47 the wind (VI.19.42). Tala wood, not very strong was used for making bows and flag-staffs (IX.33.2), while Tala leaves were made into handy household fans (XIII.154.8). In fact the majority of the references to Tala are in the context of bows which are often refered to as 'talamatra' (I.180.18; V.26.23; V.45.47; VII.44.16; VIII.48.13). The Tala palm is indigenous to India, and is cultivated throughout the country. a closer scrutiny it is observed that at present it is rather rare in Northen India and more profuse in the coastal areas of Bengal and Bihar, and the Western and Eastern Peninsula, right upto Cape Camoring and beyond (Maheshwari and Singh 1965:23-24). In the Mahabharata, however, it appears to have been a common sight in the plains and forests of the Saraswati (III.25.17), the Ganga and the Yamuna (1.199.40), in and around cities like Indraprastha. ON Kadali, (sa Sapientum), the banana was also a favorite for similes, a symbol of great fragility. Therefore, a woman in distress, for example, Draupadi dragged mercilessly by Duhsasana (II.60.24) or Sita fainting at the sight of Ravana (III.275.14), and similar such instances are always compared to the delicate plantain, tossed, pulled and uprooted by the wind. kadali is typical to the tropics, growing best in hot, demp climats (Cowen 1950:83). According to the Epic, plantain forests grew thick along the river Saraswati (IX.36.60). The POONA LIBRARY

= 48 Even a casual glance at the important trees in the Mahabharata will show that most of them occur in the Vedas too. The beautiful Kimsuka, the fig trees Nyagrodha, Asvattha, Udumbara and Plaksa, the many different types of lotuses and the wild fruit of the Badara (jujuba), were all known to the Rgveda (Macdonell and Keith 1912 : I-41, 87, 156, 426, 462, 536; II-9, 54, 59, 324). However, Sala, the single most prominent tree of the Epic, is totally unknown to the Vedic literature. The tree is first mentioned in the aphorisms of Panini where it is refered to as Karsya. Dr. Agrawala has observed that, the reference to 'Karsyavanas' or forests of Karsya trees, is very important as it points to the Terai forests of Sala trees in eastern India (Agrawala 1963:212). With the pre-eminent position of Sala it is clear that the Mahabharata surroundings have undergone a change from the Vedic Period. There has been a definite eastward shift, from the North-west, from Punjab and Sind to Eastern-central India. The presence of a large number of Tala palms in the Mahabharata lends support to this belief. The Tala too, is absent in the entire Vedic literature and is mentioned for the first time by Panini (Agrawala:212). The tree is indigenous to India, but if its modern geographical locale is any criterion, then it is more a coastal palm, the restricted to coastal Bengal and to the Western and POONA 6. LIBRARY

Eastern Peninsula. Thus there is no doubt that the background of the Mahabharata has further moved away from the North and the North-west, towards the East. The eastward swing is further confirmed by frequent references to two other plants, the Kadali or plantain and the Asoka, both of which occur for the - 49 first time, besides the Epic, in Buddhist Pali literature (Sanyutta Nikaya I.154; Vinaya Pitaka II.188; Jataka V.188). However, neither of the two are, half as prominent as the Sala or the Tala, and we may therefore, assume that the geographical locale of the Mahabharata was not exactly the same as of the Pali texts, namely Magadha or eastern U.P. and Bihar. Thus it is very likely that the Mahabharata floral data, as far as its prominent plants are concerned, was Somewhere around shaped 500-300 B.C. Additions were certainly made in later periods, but they hardly matter, mentioned barely once or twice, and generally lost in the huge mass of Epic verses. A few of these can be pinned down, for example, fruit trees such as Narikela, Dadima, and Bijapuraka r known to the medical works of Charaka, but occuring barely once or twice in the Epic, particularly in the description of the Himalayan Gandhamadana forest,

(III.155.41-46) where they can not be botanically located. Clearly a naive scribe in some later period, has let his imagination run wild and inserted the wrong species in the wrong place. The Mahabharata is on the whole accurate about the geographical location of trees, whenever it happens to mention particular regions and their vegetation. There are only a few descrepancies, the most conspicuous being the exotic touch given to the description of the Gandhamadana forest, a favorite haunt of Kubera and his Yakshas (III.155). - 50