Chapter 2.7 - Pramanas in Buddhist Philosophy

Buddha Gautama or Sakyamuni born at Kapilavastu in 570 BC and attained nirivana at Kushinagara in 490 BC is regarded as the real founder of Buddhism by modern scholars. He has delivered his teaching in the Magadhi or Pali language. In its early stage, Buddhism was divided into Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. The teachings of Buddha are primarily found in the three pitakas or baskets of the law which constitute the Pali canonical literature. They are basket of expected discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), basket of discourse (Sutra Pitaka) and basket of special doctrine (Abhidharma Pitaka).^[1]

The whole of the teachings of Buddha can be summed in the four noble truths (aryasatya);

1. that there is suffering (dukha),
2. it has a cause (samudaya),
3. cause can be stopped (nirodha) and
4. there is a way to stop suffering (marga)^[2]

Valid knowledge has been defined as the knowledge that is in harmony with its objects. Buddhists consider knowledge to be true if it harmonizes with volitional experience. There are two kinds of valid knowledge; Perception and Inference.

Perception according to them is a non-erroneous presentation devoid of all determination or conceptual construction. It is the immediate apprehension of an object in its uniqueness unassociated with names and other determination (kalpana). Indeterminate perception alone is perception. It is valid because it apprehends the uniqueness or individuality of an object, devoid of all qualifications. Determinate perception on the other hand is not considered valid. In determinate perception there is similarity between the form of cognition and the form of its object.

Perception is of four kinds:

1. sense perception,
2. mental perception,
3. self-awareness (svasamvedana) and
4. Yogic intuition.

Sense perception is the immediate apprehension of an object through a sense organ. Visual perception of a color belongs to this kind. Mental perception is produced by sense perception, which is its immediately preceding cause and the objective datum which comes into being in the second moment and which is similar to the object of sense perception. When the visual organs continue to function, there is sense perception of colour. All the cognitions and feelings are aware of themselves. They are self-luminous. They are not apprehended by the self which is non-existent. Each cognition immutably apprehends itself rightly without any determinations so much so this self-aware cognition is perception. Yogic intuition is direct and distinct perception of real nature of objects brought about by the most intense meditation. It is not brought about by the sense organs. It’s indeterminate and in harmony with its object.

A real object is characterized by its capacity to produce fruitful activity (arthakriyasamarthya). That which is different from it, is the general character of an object (samanayalakshana). It is its common character. It is apprehended by inference.

Inference:

Inference is of two kinds; a) inference for one’s own sake (svarthanumana) and b) inference for the sake of other (pararthanumana).The former is the knowledge of an inferable property (sadhya) from the knowledge of a mark of inference (linga) which abides in the minor term or the subject of inference (paksha) or in cases which are homologous (sapaksha) or which does not abide in cases which are heterologous (vipaksha).

Hetu possesses three characteristics:

1. reason which is identical in essence with the probandum;
2. a reason which is an effect of the probhandum and
3. a reason which is not perceived in negative instance.

This is a tree because it is a simshapa tree. This inference is based on uniformity in essence (tadatmya) which is uniformity of co-existence. There is fire here because there is smoke here. This inference is based on uniformity of causation (tadutpatti), which is a uniformity of succession. Smoke is the effect of fire. This cause is inferred from its effect.^[3]

Inference for the sake of other (parathanumana) resembles inference for one’s own sake (svarthanumana) in all essential characteristics; but it differs from it in the fact that it is formally stated in the form of a syllogism.

Inference for the sake of other is of two kinds a) positive or homogeneous (sadharmyat) and b) negative or heterogeneous (vaidharmyat) For instance, sound is non-eternal because it is a product, all products are non-eternal as a pot (positive) Sound is non-eternal, because it is a product, no non-eternal (eternal things) is a product as ether (negative).^[4] The Buddhists accepted three members of syllogism. They are: conclusion, the minor premise and the universal major premise with an example. Inference is based on vyapti or inseparable connection between the probans and the probandum.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Jadunath Sinha, Indian Philosophy, Vol II, p. 279; Tipitaka Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015.

[2]:

ibid, p.281

[3]:

ibid, pp. 414-416

[4]:

History of Indian logic, p.312