1-2: The number of Alaṃkāras (poetic figures) mentioned

[Vamana’s uniqueness in the treatment of figures]—Vāmana’s doctrine about alaṃkāras is very much different and unique form both his predecessors and followers in Sanskrit Rhetoric. His remarkable two-fold definition of alaṃkāras has taken the scope of figures to a boundless proportion. His distinctiveness can also be felt in the number of figures mentioned, the classification of figures, the definitions and characteristics of figures etc.

Bharata, the ‘father figure’ of Sanskrit Rhetoric, has mentioned only four (4) alaṃkāras in his Naṭyaśāstra^[1] :

1. upamā,
2. rūpaka,
3. dīpaka (arthālaṃkāras) and
4. yamaka (śabdālaṃkāra).

According to the number of upameya (the object compared) or upamāna (the standard of comparison), the upamā is subdivided into four types, viz,

1. ekasya ekena (one upameya and one upamāna),
2. ekasya anekena (one upameya and many upamānas),
3. anekasya ekena (many upameyas and one upamāna) and
4. vahūnaṃ vahubhiḥ (many upameyas and many upamānas).

According to another view point the upamā has been categorised into five varieties—

1. praśaṃsopamā,
2. nindopamā,
3. kalpitopamā,
4. sadṛśī upamā and
5. kiñcitsadṛśī upamā.

No sub varieties of dīpaka and rūpaka have been mentioned. Bharata classifies yamaka into ten (10) varieties. They are—

1. pādānta yamaka,
2. kāñci yamaka,
3. samudga yamaka,
4. vibhrānta yamaka,
5. cakravāla yamaka,
6. sandaṣṭa yamaka,
7. pādādi yamaka,
8. āmreḍita yamaka,
9. caturvyavasita yamaka and
10. mālā yamaka.

Bhāmaha has defined and illustrated thirty-nine (39) figures of speech.

Among them anuprāsa and yamaka are classified as śabdālaṃkāras while the other thirty-seven (37) figures of speech represent arthālaṃkāras.

Bhāmaha first discusses five (05) figures of speech thus suggesting their superiority or prominence over the others. These alaṃkāras are:

1. anuprāsa,
2. yamaka,
3. rūpaka,
4. dīpaka and
5. upamā^[2] .

It is probable that Bhāmaha refers to Bharata here. The anuprāsa which is not mentioned by Bharata can be included as a variety of yamaka enumerated by him.

Bhāmaha mentions two (02) varieties of anuprāsa—

1. grāmyānuprāsa and
2. lāṭīyānuprāsa.

He cites five (05) kinds of yamaka—

1. ādi yamaka,
2. madhya yamaka,
3. anta yamaka,
4. pādābhyāsa yamaka and
5. samastapāda yamaka.

Bhāmaha seems to have known the tenfold division of yamaka advocated by Bharata and is of the opinion that this fivefold division of yamaka includes at least sandaṣṭa yamaka and samudga yamaka^[3] .

He then mentions two (02) varieties of rūpaka:

1. samastavastuviṣaya and
2. ekadeśavivarti;

And three kinds of dīpaka:

1. ādiviṣaya,
2. madhyaviṣaya and
3. antaviṣaya.

He maintains prativastūpamā as a variety of upamā. He further cites six more varieties of alaṃkāras—

1. two (02) kinds of akṣepa (vakṣyamāṇaviṣaya and uktaviṣaya),
2. arthāntaranyāsa,
3. vyatireka,
4. vibhāvanā,
5. samāsokti and
6. atiśayokti^[4] .

The other alaṃkāras mentioned by him are—

1. yathāsaṃkhyā,
2. utprekṣhā,
3. svabhāvokti,
4. preyaḥ [preyas?],
5. rasavat,
6. ūrjasvi,
7. paryāyokta,
8. samāhita,
9. udātta (two types),
10. śliṣṭa,
11. apahnuti,
12. viśeṣokti,
13. virodha,
14. tulyayogitā,
15. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
16. vyājastuti,
17. nidarśanā,
18. upamārūpaka,
19. upameyopamā,
20. sahokti,
21. parivṛtti,
22. sasandeha,
23. ananvaya,
24. utprekṣāvayava,
25. saṃsṛṣṭi,
26. bhāvika and
27. āśīḥ [āśis?].

Bhāmaha regards āśīḥ as a separate poetic figure as he states that some of his predecessors have accepted it as an alaṃkāra^[5] . Bhāmaha considers vakrokti as the core of embellishment in poetry. So he points out that hetu, sūkṣma, leśa and vārtta are not to be regarded as alaṃkāras as they are devoid of vakrokti^[6] .

Daṇḍin has mentioned arthālaṃkāras and śabdālaṃkāras in the second and third chapter of his work respectively. He cites thirty-five (35) arthālaṃkāras—

1. svabhāvokti,
2. upamā,
3. rūpaka,
4. dīpaka,
5. āvṛtti,
6. ākṣepa,
7. arthāntaranyāsa,
8. vyatireka,
9. vibhāvana,
10. samāsokti,
11. atiśayokti,
12. utprekṣā,
13. hetu,
14. sūkṣma,
15. leśa,
16. krama,
17. preyaḥ [preyas?],
18. rasavat,
19. ūrjasvi,
20. paryāyokti,
21. samāhita,
22. udātta,
23. apahnuti,
24. śleṣa,
25. viśeṣokti,
26. tulyayogitā,
27. virodha,
28. apastutapraśaṃsā,
29. vyājastuti,
30. nidarśanā,
31. sahokti,
32. parivṛtti,
33. āśīḥ [āśis?],
34. saṃkīrṇa (or saṃsṛṣṭi) and
35. bhāvika.

Daṇḍin also puts forth eight (08) śabdālaṃkāras—

1. yamaka,
2. gomūtrikā,
3. ardhabhrama,
4. sarvatobhadra,
5. svaraniyama,
6. sthānaniyama,
7. varṇaniyama and
8. prahelikā.

He devotes considerable portions of his treatise to elaborate the sub-varieties of some of the prominent figures of speech. He mentions thirty-two (32) subordinate types of upamā and twenty-one (21) varieties of rūpaka. He clearly states that there is no end to the varieties of rūpaka and upamā and therefore only the direction has been indicated by him. It is up to the apt poets to infer what has been left unsaid in this matter^[7] .

The other figures where the subvarieties are illustrated are—

1. dīpaka (4 primary varieties+4 secondary varieties=8),
2. āvṛtti (3),
3. ākṣepa (3+22=25),
4. arthāntaranyāsa (8),
5. vyatireka (8),
6. samāsokti (3),
7. hetu (2+9=11),
8. sūkṣma (2),
9. leśa (2),
10. rasavat (8),
11. udātta (2),
12. apahnuti (4),
13. śleṣa (6),
14. viśeṣokti (5),
15. tulyayogitā (2),
16. sahokti (2),
17. yamaka (4+7=11 and many more) and
18. prahelikā (16).

Daṇḍin considers atiśayokti as the figure of speech which is most important and also honoured by all masters of speech^[8] . He mentions śleṣa as the general mean of enriching poetic composition^[9] . He has not defined ananvaya and sasandeha as he considers them as sub-varieties of upamā. He also includes upamārūpaka and utprekṣāvayava under rūpaka and utprekṣā respectively. Following Bhāmaha, he rejects vārtta as a figure of speech and considers prativastūpamā as a variety of upamā. But, in contrast to Bhāmaha, he recognises hetu, sūkṣma and leśa as the best figures of word^[10] .

Vāmana has furnished the definitions and characteristics of thirty-one (31) alaṃkāras which includes two (2) major śabdālaṃkāras (figures of speech created through the mastery of using words) and twenty-nine (29) arthālaṃkāras (figures of speech created through the mastery of using senses and meaning). It is interesting to note that the number of figures of speech mentioned by him is the least among the ancient Sanskrit rhetoricians after Bharata. Vāmana excludes prahelikā and bandha in his concise treatment of śabdālaṃkāras. Following the principle of defining all figures of sense in respect of the idea of comparison, Vāmana rejects figures like paryāyokta, preyaḥ, rasavat, ūrjasvi, udātta, bhāvika and sūkṣma. He considers prativastūpamā or prativastu as a separate figure of speech. He also includes upamārūpaka and utprekṣāvayava as sub-varieties of saṃsṛṣṭi.

Udbhaṭa, a probable contemporary of Vāmana, closely follows Bhāmaha in the treatment of poetic figures. He enumerates the poetic figures in almost the same order as that of Bhāmaha. He first divides all poetic figures into six vargas and then he includes forty-one (41) poetic figures in these vargas.

The figures defined and illustrated by Udbhaṭā are—

1. punaruktavadābhāsa,
2. anuprāsa (three varieties—chekānuprāsa, vṛttyanuprāsa and lātānuprāsa),
3. rūpaka,
4. dīpaka,
5. upamā,
6. prativastūpamā,
7. ākṣepa,
8. arthāntaranyāsa,
9. vyatireka,
10. vibhāvanā,
11. samāsokti,
12. atiśayokti,
13. yathāsaṃkhya,
14. utprekṣā,
15. svabhāvokti,
16. preyasvat,
17. rasavat,
18. ūrjasvi,
19. paryāyokta,
20. samāhita,
21. udātta,
22. śliṣṭa,
23. apahnuti,
24. viśeṣokti,
25. virodha,
26. tulyayogitā,
27. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
28. vyājastuti,
29. vidarśanā,
30. saṃkara,
31. upameyopamā,
32. sahokti,
33. parivṛtti,
34. sasandeha,
35. ananvaya,
36. saṃsṛṣṭi,
37. bhāvika,
38. kāvyahetu or kāvyaliṅga and
39. kāvyadṛṣṭānta.

Udbhaṭa has also shown sub -varieties of many figures such as:

1. rūpaka (4),
2. dīpaka (3),
3. upamā (17),
4. ākṣepa (2),
5. arthāntaranyāsa (2),
6. vyatireka (8),
7. atiśayokti (4),
8. utprekṣā (2),
9. udātta (2),
10. śliṣṭa (2),
11. viśeṣokti (2),
12. tulyayogitā (2),
13. saṃkara (4) and
14. parivṛtti (3).

Udbhaṭa is the first rhetorician to classify anuprāsa on the basis of three vṛttis—

1. paruṣā,
2. upanāgarikā and
3. grāmyā.

He is also the first to recommend a grammatical basis of the divisions of upamā. He is the pioneer to recognise sub-forms of atiśayokti and is the initiator of the division of śleṣa into arthaśleṣa and śabdaśleṣa. Though following Bhāmaha, Udbhaṭa omits some figures defined by Bhāmaha like yamaka, upamārūpaka and utprekṣāvayava. He also adds some new figures like punaruktavadābhāsa, kāvyaliṅga, kāvyadṛṣṭānta and saṃkara which were not defined by Bhāmaha.

Rudraṭa has put forth a detailed treatment of poetic figures which very much differs from his predecessors. He adds twenty-seven (27) more independent figures to Udbhaṭā’s tally of figures and raises it to sixty-eight (68).

He, like Vāmana, clearly divides figures into:

1. figures of senses (arthālaṃkāras) and
2. figures of words (śabdālaṃkāras).

He devotes four chapters of his work for the definitions and classifications of individual figures.

He mentions five broad varieties of śabdālaṃkāras—

1. vakrokti,
2. śleṣa,
3. citra,
4. anuprāsa and
5. yamaka.

The arthālaṃkāras are first classified into four broad categories—

1. vāstava,
2. aupamya,
3. atiśaya and
4. śleṣa.

All the arthālaṃkāras are then allocated into these four major groups.

The figures of sense defined and illustrated by Rudraṭā are—

(i) twenty-three (23) figures in ‘vāstava’ category—

1. sahokti,
2. samuccaya,
3. jāti,
4. yathāsaṃkhyā,
5. bhāva,
6. paryāya,
7. viṣama,
8. anumāna,
9. dīpaka,
10. parikara,
11. parivṛtti,
12. parisaṃkhyā,
13. hetu,
14. kāraṇamāla,
15. vyatireka,
16. anyonya,
17. uttara,
18. sāra,
19. sūkṣma,
20. leśa,
21. avasara,
22. mīlita and
23. ekāvalī,

(ii) twenty-one (21) figures in ‘anupamya’ category—

1. upamā,
2. utprekṣā,
3. rūpaka,
4. apahnuhi,
5. saṃśaya,
6. samāsokti,
7. mata,
8. uttara,
9. anyokti,
10. pratīpa,
11. arthāntaranyāsa,
12. ubhayanyāsa,
13. bhrāntimat,
14. ākṣepa,
15. pratyanīka,
16. dṛṣṭānta,
17. pūrva,
18. sahokti,
19. samuccaya,
20. sāmya and
21. smaraṇa,

(iii) twelve figures (12) in ‘atiśaya’ division—

1. pūrva,
2. viśeṣa,
3. utprekṣā,
4. vibhāvanā,
5. tadguṇa,
6. adhika,
7. virodha,
8. viṣama,
9. asaṃgati,
10. pihita,
11. vyāghāta and
12. hetu,

(iv) the ‘śleṣa’ category is primarily divided into two kinds—

1. śuddha and
2. saṃkīrṇa.

The saṃkīrṇa type is again sub-divided into ten varieties—

1. aviśeṣa,
2. virodha,
3. adhika,
4. vakra,
5. vyāja,
6. ukti,
7. asaṃbhava,
8. avayava,
9. tattva and
10. virodhābhāsa.

Several sub -varieties of almost all the figures have also been discussed by Rudraṭa. Some of the figures mentioned by him have been rejected or modified by later rhetoricians. But Rudraṭā’s great effort in minutely analysing the basic traits of these figures is worth admiring.

The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa defines seventeen (17) figures. They are—

1. anuprāsa,
2. yamaka (2 types),
3. rūpaka,
4. vyatireka,
5. śleṣa,
6. utprekṣā,
7. arthāntaranyāsa,
8. upanyāsa,
9. vibhāvanā,
10. atiśayokti,
11. svabhāvokti,
12. yathāsaṃkhyā,
13. viśeṣokti,
14. virodha,
15. nindā-stuti,
16. nidarśanā and
17. ananvaya.

The basic figure upamā is indirectly admitted.

The Agnipurāṇa deals with twenty-three figures of which nine (09) are śabdālaṃkāras, eight (08) are arthālaṃkāras and six (06) are ubhayālaṃkāras.

They are (the number of sub-varieties are in brackets)—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras-

1. chāyā (4),
2. mudrā,
3. ukti (6),
4. yukti,
5. gumphaṇa,
6. vākovākya (2),
7. anuprāsa (5-including yamaka),
8. citra (07),
9. duṣkara (3-including prahelikā).

b) Arthālaṃkāras-

1. svarūpa (2),
2. sādṛśya (4- upamā, rūpaka, sahokti and arthāntaranyāsa),
3. utprekṣā,
4. atiśaya (2),
5. vibhāvanā,
6. virodha,
7. hetu (2) and
8. sama.

c) Ubhayālaṃkāras-

1. praśasti,
2. kanti,
3. aucitya,
4. saṃkṣepa,
5. yavadarthatā and
6. abhivyakti (2-including ākṣepa).

Kuntaka deals with poetic figures as a part and parcel of his broader scheme of ‘vakratā’. He includes the śabdālaṃkāras in ‘varṇavinyāsavakratā’.

He enumerates the following conventional figures—

1. rasavat (Kuntaka differs from his predecessors regarding the features of this figure),
2. dīpaka,
3. rūpaka,
4. apastutapraśaṃsā,
5. paryāyokti,
6. vyājastuti,
7. utprekṣā,
8. atiśayokti,
9. upamā (including prativastūpamā, upameyopamā, tulyagogitā, ananvaya and nidarśanā),
10. śleṣa,
11. vyatireka,
12. sahokti,
13. dṛṣṭānta,
14. arthāntaranyāsa,
15. akṣepa,
16. vibhāvanā,
17. sandeha,
18. apahnuti and
19. saṅkara.

Bhoja has mentioned seventy-two (72) figures of speech out of which śabdālaṃkāras, arthālaṃkāras and ubhayālaṃkāras have been admitted as twenty-four (24) each. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras-

1. jāti,
2. gati,
3. rīti,
4. vṛtti,
5. chāyā,
6. mudrā,
7. ukti,
8. yukti,
9. bhaṇiti,
10. gumphaṇa,
11. śayyā,
12. paṭhiti,
13. yamaka,
14. śleṣa,
15. anuprāsa,
16. citra,
17. vākovākya,
18. prahelikā,
19. gūḍa,
20. praśnottara,
21. adhyeya,
22. śravyakāvya,
23. prekṣyakāvya,
24. abhinīya.

b) Arthālaṃkāras-

1. jāti,
2. vibhāvanā,
3. hetu,
4. ahetu,
5. sūkṣma,
6. uttara,
7. virodha,
8. sambhava,
9. anyonya,
10. parivṛtti,
11. nidarśanā,
12. vyatireka,
13. samāhita,
14. bhrānti,
15. vitarka,
16. mīlita,
17. smṛti,
18. bhāva,
19. pratyakṣa,
20. anumāna,
21. upamāna,
22. āptavākya,
23. arthāpatti,
24. anupalabdhi.

c) Ubhayālaṃkāras-

1. upamā,
2. rūpaka,
3. sāmya,
4. saṃśayokti,
5. apahnuti,
6. samadhyukti,
7. samāsokti,
8. utprekṣā,
9. aprastutastuti,
10. tulyayogitā,
11. ullekha,
12. sahokti,
13. samuccaya,
14. akṣepa,
15. arthāntaranyāsa,
16. viśeṣa,
17. pariskṛti,
18. dīpaka,
19. karma,
20. paryāya,
21. atiśaya,
22. śleṣa,
23. bhāvika,
24. saṃsṛṣṭi.

Mammaṭa admits sixty -seven (67) figures out of which five (05) are śabdālaṃkāras, one (01) is śabdārthālaṃkāra and sixty-one (61) are arthālaṃkāras. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras-

1. vakrokti,
2. anuprāsa,
3. yamaka,
4. śleṣa,
5. citra.

b) Śabdārthālaṃkāra-punaruktavadābhāsa.

c) Arthālaṃkāras-

1. upamā,
2. ananvaya,
3. upameyopamā,
4. utprekṣā,
5. sasandeha,
6. rūpaka,
7. apahnuti,
8. śleṣa,
9. samāsokti,
10. nidarśanā,
11. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
12. atiśayokti,
13. prativastūpamā,
14. dṛṣṭānta,
15. dīpaka,
16. tulyayogitā,
17. vyatireka,
18. ākṣepa,
19. vibhāvanā,
20. viśeṣokti,
21. yathāsaṃkhyā,
22. arthāntaranyāsa,
23. virodha,
24. svabhāvokti,
25. vyājastuti,
26. sahokti,
27. vinokti,
28. parivṛtti,
29. bhāvika,
30. kāvyaliṅga,
31. paryāyokti,
32. udātta,
33. samuccaya,
34. paryāya,
35. anumāna,
36. parikara,
37. vyājokti,
38. parisaṃkhyā,
39. kāraṇamālā,
40. anyonya,
41. uttara,
42. sūkṣma,
43. sāra,
44. asaṃgati,
45. samādhi,
46. sama,
47. viṣama,
48. adhika,
49. pratyanīka,
50. mīlita,
51. ekāvali,
52. smaraṇa,
53. bhrāntiman,
54. pratīpa,
55. sāmānya,
56. viśeṣa,
57. tadguṇa,
58. atadguṇa,
59. vyāghāta,
60. saṃsṛṣṭi and
61. saṃkara.

Ruyyaka cites eighty-two (82) figures of speech out of which six (06) are śabdālaṃkāras and seventy-six (76) are arthālaṃkāras. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras-

1. punaruktavadābhāsa,
2. chekānuprāsa,
3. vṛttyanuprāsa (these three figures are based on śabdapaunaruktya),
4. yamaka,
5. lāṭānuprāsa and
6. citra (these two figures are based on śabdārthapaunaruktya).

b) Arthālaṃkāras-

1. upamā,
2. ananvaya,
3. upameyopamā,
4. smaraṇa,
5. rūpaka,
6. pariṇāma,
7. saṃdeha,
8. bhrāntimān,
9. ullekha,
10. apahnuti,
11. utprekṣā,
12. atiśayokti,
13. tulyayogitā,
14. dīpaka,
15. prativastūpamā,
16. dṛṣṭānta,
17. nidarśanā,
18. vyatireka,
19. sahokti,
20. vinokti,
21. samāsokti,
22. parikara,
23. śleṣa,
24. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
25. arthāntaranyāsa,
26. paryāyokta,
27. vyājastuti,
28. ākṣepa,
29. virodha,
30. vibhāvanā,
31. viśeṣokti,
32. atiśayokti (based on the relation of cause and effect),
33. asaṃgati,
34. viṣama,
35. sama,
36. vicitra,
37. adhika,
38. anonyaya,
39. viśeṣa,
40. vyāghāta,
41. kāraṇamālā,
42. ekāvalī,
43. mālādīpaka,
44. udāra,
45. kāvyaliṅga,
46. anumāna,
47. yathāsaṃkhya,
48. paryāya,
49. parivṛtti,
50. parisaṃkhyā,
51. arthāpatti,
52. vikalpa,
53. samuccaya,
54. samādhi,
55. pratyanīka,
56. pratīpa,
57. mīlita,
58. sāmānya,
59. tadguṇa,
60. atadguṇa,
61. uttara,
62. sūkṣma,
63. vyājokti,
64. vakrokti,
65. svabhāvokti,
66. bhāvika,
67. udātta,
68. rasavat,
69. preya,
70. ūrjasvin,
71. samāhita,
72. bhāvodaya,
73. bhāvasaṃdhi,
74. bhāvaśavalatā,
75. saṃsṛṣṭi and
76. saṃkara.

Hemacandra reckons six (06) figures of sound and twenty-nine (29) figures of sense. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras—

1. anuprāsa,
2. yamaka,
3. citra,
4. śleṣa,
5. vakrokti and
6. punaruktabhāsa.

b) Arthālaṃkāras—

1. upamā,
2. utprekṣā,
3. rūpaka,
4. nidarśanā,
5. dīpaka,
6. anyokti,
7. paryāyokta,
8. atiśayokti,
9. ākṣepa,
10. virodha,
11. sahokti,
12. samāsokti,
13. jāti,
14. vyājastuti,
15. śleṣa,
16. vyatireka,
17. arthāntaranyāsa,
18. sasandeha,
19. apahnuti,
20. parivṛtti,
21. anumāna,
22. smṛti,
23. bhrānti,
24. viṣama,
25. sama,
26. samuccaya,
27. parisaṃkhyā,
28. kāraṇamālā and
29. saṃkara.

Vāgbhaṭa I admits four (04) figures of sound and thirty-five (35) figures of sense. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras-

1. citra,
2. vakrokti,
3. anuprāsa and
4. yamaka.

b) Arthālaṃkāras-

1. jāti,
2. upamā,
3. anyonya,
4. rūpaka,
5. prativastūpamā,
6. bhrāntiman,
7. ākṣepa,
8. saṃśaya,
9. dṛṣṭānta,
10. vyatireka,
11. apahnuti,
12. tulyoyogitā,
13. utprekṣā,
14. arthāntaranyāsa,
15. samāsokti,
16. vibhāvanā,
17. dīpaka,
18. atiśaya,
19. hetu,
20. paryāyokti,
21. samāhita,
22. parivṛtti,
23. yathāsaṃkhya,
24. viṣama,
25. sahokti,
26. virodha,
27. avasara,
28. sāra,
29. śleṣa,
30. samuccaya,
31. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
32. ekāvalī,
33. anumāna,
34. parisaṃkhyā and
35. praśnottara.

Vāgbhaṭa II deals with six (06) figures of sound and sixty-three (63) figures of sense. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras–

1. citra,
2. śleṣa,
3. anuprāsa,
4. vakrokti,
5. yamaka and
6. punaruktavadābhāsa.

b) Arthālaṃkāras–

1. jāti,
2. upamā,
3. utprekṣā,
4. rūpaka,
5. dīpaka,
6. anyokti,
7. samāsokti,
8. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
9. paryāyokti,
10. atiśayokti,
11. sahokti,
12. ākṣepa,
13. virodha,
14. arthāntaranyāsa,
15. vyājastuti,
16. vyatireka,
17. sasaṃdeha,
18. apahnuti,
19. parivṛtti,
20. anumāna,
21. smṛti,
22. bhrānti,
23. viṣama,
24. sama,
25. samuccaya,
26. anya,
27. apara,
28. parisaṃkhyā,
29. kāraṇamālā,
30. dṛṣṭānta,
31. ekāvalī,
32. yathāsaṃkhya,
33. parikara,
34. udātta,
35. samīhita,
36. vibhavanā,
37. anyonya,
38. mīlita,
39. viṣesa,
40. pūrva,
41. hetu,
42. sāra,
43. sūkṣma,
44. leśa,
45. pratīpa,
46. pihita,
47. vyāghāta,
48. asaṃ
49. gati,
50. ahetu,
51. śleṣa,
52. mata,
53. utarottara,
54. ubhayanyāsa,
55. bhāva,
56. paryāya,
57. vyājokti,
58. adhika,
59. pratyanīka,
60. ananvaya,
61. tadguṇa,
62. atadguṇa,
63. saṃkara
64. and aśī.

Jayadeva has mentioned five (05) śabdālaṃkāras and ninety-five (95) arthālaṃkāras as he takes the tally of alaṃkāras into three-figures. These figures are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras–

1. chekānuprāsa,
2. lāṭānuprāsa,
3. arthānuprāsa,
4. punaruktapratīkāśa and
5. yamaka.

b) Arthālaṃkāras–

1. upamā,
2. ananvaya,
3. upameyopamā,
4. rūpaka,
5. pariṇāma,
6. ullekhitā,
7. apahnuti,
8. utprekṣā,
9. smṛti,
10. bhrānti,
11. saṃdeha,
12. mīlita,
13. sāmānya,
14. hetu,
15. anumāna,
16. arthāpatti,
17. kāvyaliṅga,
18. parikara,
19. parikarāṅkura,
20. atiśayokti,
21. prauḍhokti,
22. sambhāvana,
23. praharṣaṇa,
24. viṣādana,
25. tulyoyogitā,
26. dīpaka,
27. āvṛttidīpaka,
28. prativastūpamā,
29. dṛṣṭānta,
30. nidarśanā,
31. vyatireka,
32. sahokti,
33. vinokti,
34. samāsokti,
35. śleṣa,
36. aprastutapraśaṃsā,
37. arthāntaranyāsa,
38. vikasvara,
39. paryāyokti,
40. vyājastuti,
41. vyājanindā,
42. ākṣepa,
43. virodha,
44. virodhābhāsa,
45. asambhava,
46. vibhāvanā,
47. viśeṣokti,
48. asaṃgati,
49. viṣama,
50. sama,
51. vicitra,
52. adhika,
53. anyonya,
54. viśeṣa,
55. vyāghāta,
56. kāraṇamālā,
57. ekāvalī,
58. mālādīpaka,
59. sāra,
60. udāra,
61. yathāsaṃkhya,
62. paryāya,
63. parivṛtti,
64. parisaṃkhyā,
65. vikalpa,
66. samuccaya,
67. samādhi,
68. pratyanīka,
69. pratīpa,
70. ullāsa,
71. tadguṇa,
72. pūrvarūpa,
73. apūrvarūpa,
74. atadguṇa,
75. anuguṇa,
76. avajñā,
77. uttara,
78. pihita,
79. vyājokti,
80. vakrokti,
81. svabhāvokti,
82. bhāvika,
83. bhāvikacchavi,
84. udātta,
85. atyukti,
86. rasavat,
87. preya,
88. ūrjasvi,
89. samāhita,
90. bhāvodaya,
91. bhāvasandhi,
92. bhāvaśabala,
93. saṃsṛṣṭi and
94. saṃkara.

Vidyādhara has cited five (05) śabdālaṃkāras and seventy-two (72) arthālaṃkāras. The list of śabdālaṃkāras matches with that of Ruyyaka though Vidyādhara counts punaruktavadābhāsa as a figure of sense. The tally of arthālaṃkāras also matches that of Ruyyaka with few exceptions. Vidyādhara mentions parikarāṅkura and praśnottarikā which are absent in the treatment of Ruyyaka. His ‘sāra’ is similar to ‘udāra’ of Ruyyaka. Again, he does not admit the figures rasavat, preya, ūrjasvin, samāhita, bhāvodaya, bhāvasaṃdhi and bhāvaśavalatā which were treated by Ruyyaka.

Vidyānātha has admitted eight (08) varieties of śabdālaṃkāras, fifty-six (56) arthālaṃkāras and two (02) miśrālaṃkāras. The śabdālaṃkāras accepted by him are similar to Ruyyaka as he includes citra in ‘padmabandhas’. He also mentions cakrabandha and nāgabandha as varieties of śabdālaṃkāras. The arthālaṃkāras are common with those of Ruyyaka and Vidyādhara though are lesser in number. He calls apahnuti as ‘apahnava’ and also mentions a figure named ‘anyāpahnava’. The arthālaṃkāra ‘citra’ cited by him is similar to ‘vicitra’ admitted by Ruyyaka and Vidyādhara. He includes saṃsṛṣṭi and saṃkara as varieties of miśrālaṃkāras.

Viśvanātha has admitted punaruktavadābhāsa as ubhayālaṃkāra. He cites seven (07) śabdālaṃkāras which includes:

1. five varieties of anuprāsa (chekanuprāsa, vṛttyanuprāsa, śrutyanuprāsa, antyānuprāsa and lāṭānuprāsa),
2. yamaka,
3. vakrokti,
4. bhāṣāsama,
5. śabdaśleṣa,
6. citra and
7. prahelikā.

He follows Mammaṭa while incorporating vakrokti as śabdālaṃkāra and accepting two-fold classification of śleṣa as:

1. śabdaśleṣa and
2. arthaśleṣa.

He, like Vidyādhara, names ‘udāra’ figure of Ruyyaka as ‘sāra’. He mentions all the arthālaṃkāras accepted by Ruyyaka and adds two new figures hetu and niścaya in his scheme of figures (seventy-seven arthālaṃkāras in total).

Keśavamiśra reduces the number of figures dramatically as he admits only twenty-two (22) figures in all which includes eight (08) śabdālaṃkāras and fourteen (14) arthālaṃkāras. They are—

a) Śabdālaṃkāras—

1. citra,
2. vakrokti,
3. anuprāsa,
4. gūḍha,
5. śleṣa,
6. prahelikā,
7. praśnottara and
8. yamaka.

b) Arthālaṃkāras—

1. upamā,
2. rūpaka,
3. utprekṣā,
4. samāsokti,
5. apahnuti,
6. samāhita,
7. svabhāva,
8. virodha,
9. sāra,
10. dīpaka,
11. sahokti,
12. anyadeśatva,
13. viśeṣokti and
14. vibhāvanā.

—Keśavamiśra is the first rhetoricia n to cite gūḍha and praśnottara as śabdālaṃkāras. His svabhāva and anyadeśatva are similar to svabhāvokti and asaṃgati of Mammaṭārespectively. Some definitions of figures furnished by him are also different from his predecessors.

Kavikarṇapūra admits five (05) śabdālaṃkāras (vakrokti, anuprāsa, yamaka, śleṣa and citra) and recognises punaruktavadābhāsa as belonging to words (śabdaniṣṭha) and word and sense both (śabdārthobhayaniṣṭha). He also mentions sixty-three (63) arthālaṃkāras in almost the same pattern as they are treated by Mammaṭāand his followers. His detailed treatment of upamā with various sub-varieties is worth mentioning.

Appayya Dīkṣīta follows the arthālaṃkāras ection of Jayadeva’s Candrāloka in his Kuvalayānanda. He also adds some supplementary figures to the tally of figures furnished by Jayadeva taking the total number of figures to one hundred and seventeen (117) excluding saṃsṛṣṭi and saṃkara.

The additional figures mentioned by him are—

1. prastutāṅkura,
2. alpa,
3. kārakadīpaka,
4. lalita,
5. mithyādhvavasiti,
6. anujñā,
7. leśa,
8. mudrā,
9. ratnāvalī,
10. unmīlita,
11. viśeṣaka,
12. sūkṣma,
13. gūḍhokti,
14. vivṛtokti,
15. yukti,
16. lokokti,
17. chekokti,
18. nirukti,
19. pratiṣedha and
20. vidhi.

He omits the treatment of śabdālaṃkāras in his work.

Jagannātha also deals with only arthālaṃkāras in his Rasagaṅgādhara. He admits sixty-nine (69) figures but there must have been more figures treated as the work is incomplete. The work breaks off in the middle of the figure uttara. The figures mentioned are similar to that of Mammaṭāand Ruyyaka with few new ones like asama and tiraskāra.

It is clear from the above discussion that the number of poetic figures in Sanskrit Rhetoric has kept on growing from time to time. The rhetoricians have indulged themselves in finding out the minute differences of figures which gave rise to multiple independent figures. The number of śabdālaṃkāras has increased since the time of Bharata because of the trend prevailing in the later writers to incorporate clever tricks of verbal arrangements in their writings. The arthālaṃkāras also got multiplied as several sub-varieties of the basic figures went on to be recognized as separate independent figures later on. The śabdārthālaṃkāras (or ubhayālaṃkāras or miśrālaṃkāras) had limited scope of growth as compared to the other two varieties. Bhoja is the only rhetorician who deals with them in a detailed manner. Vāmana’s scheme of poetic figures is somewhat unique in itself as he admits less number of figures than his prominent predecessors Bhāmaha and Daṇḍin. It is probably his rigidness of sticking to the principle of similarity while recognising figures of sense that has significantly reduced his tally of figures.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

upamādīpakaṃ caiva rūpakaṃ yamakaṃ tathā/
kāvyasyete hyalaṃkārāścatvāraḥ parikīrtitāḥ//
  —Nāṭyaśāstra (of Bharata) 17.81.

[2]:

anuprāsaḥ sayamako rūpakaṃ dīpakopame/
iti vācāṃlaṅkārāḥ pañcaivānairudāhṛtāḥ//
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 2.4.

[3]:

saṃdaṣṭakasamudgāderatraikāntargatirmatā/
ādau madhyāntayorvāsyāditi pañcaiva tadyathā//
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 2.10.

[4]:

ākṣepo'rthāntaranyāso vyatireko vibhāvanā/
samāsātiśayoktīca ṣaḍalaṃkṛtayo'parāḥ//
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 2.66.

[5]:

āśīrapi ca keṣāṃcidalaṅkāratayāmatā/
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 3.55.

[6]:

hetuśca sūkṣmo leśo'tha nālaṃkāratayāmataḥ/
samudāyābhidheyasya vakroktyanabhidhānataḥ//
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 2.86.

[7]:

na paryanto vikalpānāṃ rūpakopamayorataḥ/
diṅmātraṃ darśitaṃ dhīrairanuktamanumīyatām//
  —Kāvyādarśa (of Daṇḍin) 2.96.

[8]:

alaṃkārāntarāṇāmapyekamāhuḥ parāyaṇam/
vāgīśamahitāmuktimimāmatiśayāhvayām//
  —Kāvyādarśa (of Daṇḍin) 2.220.

[9]:

śleṣaḥ sarvāsu puṣnāti prāyo vakroktiṣu śriyam/
  —Kāvyādarśa (of Daṇḍin) 2.363.

[10]:

hetuśca sūkṣmaleśau ca vācāmuttamabhūṣaṇam/
  —Kāvyādarśa (of Daṇḍin) 2.235.