Sūtra 1.1.2 (Definition of Dharma)

Sanskrit text, Unicode transliteration, Word-for-word and English translation of Vaiśeṣika sūtra 1.1.2:

यतोऽभ्युदयनिःश्रेयससिद्धिः स धर्मः ॥ १.१.२ ॥

yato'bhyudayaniḥśreyasasiddhiḥ sa dharmaḥ || 1.1.2 ||

yataḥ—whence; abhyudaya-niḥśreyasa-siddhiḥ—Exaltation, Supreme Good. Accomplishment; saḥ—that; dharmaḥ—Piety, Religion.

2. Dharma (is) that from which (results) the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good.

Commentary: The Upaskāra of Śaṅkara Miśra:

(English rendering of Śaṅkara Miśra’s commentary called Upaskāra from the 15th century)

Now he describes the subject proposed:

‘Abhyudaya’ means knowledge of the essences. ‘Niḥśreyasa’ is final cessation of pain. That from which both of them result is dharma. The compound of the two words, rendered as ‘niḥśreyasa’ by the path of ‘abhyudaya,’ belongs to that class of compounds which are formed by the elision of the middle term: or it is a Tat-puruṣu compound ablatively formed.

This dharma will be later on described as being characterised by forbearance. If it is the effect of constant contemplation and other practices of Yoga and is the same as adṛṣṭa (the invisible, potential after effects of actions, or Merit and Demerit), then it is producible by positive performances.

The Vṛttikāra, however, says: “Abhyudaya’ is happiness, aad ‘niḥṣrevasa’ the simultaneous annihilation of all the particular attributes (i.e., modifications) of the Soul. The proof is that in the case of dharma, the body, etc., of Devadatta are made up of elements so directed by the particular attributes of the enjoyer or sufferer, aad as they are products or effects, they are, as the means of his enjoyment or experience, like a garland made by himself.” Now, this explanation has been discarded by superficial readers as being not wide enough to apply to each and all (a). Whereas in fact “what is dharma? and what its characteristic?—the enquiry of the disciples being of such a general nature, the answer comes, “That from which (results) the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme (rood.”

Thus, that which leads to the attainment of Exaltation, and also that which leads to the attainment of the Supreme (rood, both of them are dharma. Thus that the invariable cause of the object of volition is dharma, being the matter to be expressed, the expression “the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme (rood” has been used with the object of specially introducing the two great objects of volition, viz., happiness and absence of pain. Because paradise and emancipation are the only great objects of volition, being the objects of desire which is not dependent upon desire for ulterior objects. And it will be shown that the absence of pain also is an object of volition.—2.

[Note.—(a) “Not wide enough to apply to each and all.”—The separate characteristics are that it produces pleasure and that it produces the Supreme Good. The former does not include the dharma of uivṛtti and the latter does not include the dharma of pravṛtti. The collective characteristic is that it produces both pleasure and the Supreme Good. And this docs not include that which produces pleasure only, nor that which produces the Supreme Good only. Thus the definition of dharma as explained by the Vṛttikāra is in either case too narrow. This is, according to Upaskāra, the view of superficial readers.]

Commentary: The Bhāṣya of Candrakānta:

(English translation of Candrakānta Tarkālaṅkāra’s Bhāṣya called the Vaiśeṣikabhāṣya from the 19th century)

Wherefrom does the production of the good and of the ultimate good result? The production of the good and of the ultimate good results from Pravṛtti, activity or employment, that is (observed in the world, or) exertion of the speech, the mind, and the body. Therein, it is said, that a person cultivates Dharma with the speech, by telling agreeable and wholesome truths and by studying the sacred writings; with the mind, by showing compassion, contentment, and faith; with the body, by practising charity and by relieving the poor and the distressed and those who are in danger.—“yajñena yajñamayajanta devāstāni dharmāṇi”—This text of the Veda also shows that Dharma is the designate of the word, “yajati,” to perform (sacrifices, etc.)

And this Dharma is subsidiary, because it subserves tattvajñāma, knowledge of the principles; which is the principal Dharma, because it is the means of the supreme good.