Chapter 3.2 - The Vishnudharma-purana (study)

This [vishnudharma-purana] is an extensive and widely popular work awaiting publication. It consists of more than 4000 verses distributed in 105 33 Sce Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, pp. 308 and 326; and List of Sanskrit, Jaina and Hindi Manuscripts, p. 22. See also R. L. Mitra, II, p. 16 (No. 550) for a Manuscript of the Dharmaghata-vrata-katha which, in its colophon, claims to belong to the Visnudharmottara-purana." 34 These colophons run as follows:-iti sri-visnu-mahapurane dvitiya-bhage sri-visnudharmottare ... 35 A. B. Keith, Catalogue, II. i, p. 912. Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Adyar Library, Part 1, p. 150. M. Rangacharya, IV, i, pp. 1437-39, No. 2111. Burnell, Clasified Index, p. 188 (Visnudharmottara-said to be the Uttara-bhaga of the Garuda-purana). 36 For its Manuscripts see (1) Haraprasad Shastri, V, pp. 764-5 [No. 4099 (Manuscript No. 1670).- This is a complete Manuscript written in Nagara scripts. It begins with two verses

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 119 chapters in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript (No. 1670), which we have chiefly used here. It has very little of the principal characteristics of a Purana, and although it deals exclusively with the religious rites and duties of the Vaisnavas and consequently calls itself a 'Sastra' on two occasions and not a 'Purana' or 'Upapurana' even once, it came to be recognised by many as a Puranic work, obviously because the later Puranas turned into religious books, caring much more for religious matters than for accounts of ancient history. Beginning, in most of its Manuscripts, with a verse extolling the sanctity of the Bharata (i. e. Mahabharata) and, on rare occasions, with a 'narayanam namaskrtya naram caiva narottamam, etc.' and 'dvaipayanostha-putani(h) srtam aprameyam, etc.' (in which the 'Bharata' has been praised), and its extent has been given by Shastri as 4600 Slokas. No. 4100 (Manuscript No. 3506).-This Manuscript also is complete, but it is written in Bengali characters. Of its two introductory verses the second runs as follows: namo vyasaya gurave vedajnaya maharsaye/ parasaryaya santaya namo narayanaya te//] (2) Julius Eggeling, VI, pp. 1308-9. No. 3604. [This Nagara Manuscript has practically the same text as that of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 1670, its first two introductory verses being the same as those of the latter.] (3) A. Weber, 338-41, [This is a Nagara Manuscript consisting of 102 chapters and having practically the same text as that of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 1670 (single chapters of the former being at times split up into two in the latter). It begins with the same two verses as those of the latter and ends with the words 'iti srivisnudharmottare sucika samapta.'] (4) Haraprasad Shastri, pp. 29-30 (No. 1002) and p. 30 (1002). [Of these two Manuscripts, which are written in Newari scripts, the first is dated Samvat 167 (=1047 A.D.) and was copied during the reign of Parama-bhattaraka-maharajadhiraja-paramesvara-srimad-bhaskara-deva.] (5) Pandit Devi Prasada, List of Sanskrit Manuscripts Discovered in Oudh during the Year 1877 (Allahabad, 1878), PP. 32-33. [This is a Nagara Manuscript consisting of $3000 Slokas' according to Pandit Devi Prasada.] (6) R. L. Mitra, VII, pp. 65-67, No. 2293. [This is a Nagara Manuscript beginning with the same verses as those of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 1670 and consisting of 3819 Slokas according to Mitra. It is dated Samvat 1910 and called 'Visnudharmottara' like the Berlin Manuscript ]

120 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS salutation, in a single verse, to Vyasa, son of Parasara, this work describes the occasion of the narration of its subject-matter as follows. Once Saunaka and other sages came to see king Satanika, son of (Janamejaya) Pariksita, after the latter's coronation had been over. Satanika received these sages with due honour and requested them to favour him with the best discourses on Narayana (i.c. Krsna), through whose grace his ancestors could recover their lost kingdom and the life of his grandfather Pariksit was saved from the deadly weapon hurled by Drona's son (Asvatthaman). He described Narayana as eternal and boundless and as one who gave birth to Rudra from his rage and to Pitamaha from his grace. He then expressed his desire for hearing the ways, secret Mantras, service, gifts, vows, fasts or Homas, by which Hari might be worshipped for getting over the miseries of life. Being highly pleased with Satanika's devotion for the god the sages praised Saunaka as a rich store-house of all knowledge and as a lamp for dispelling all darkness of doubt in the three worlds and reqested him to speak to Satanika about Krsna-Narayana. Consequently, after briefly explaining the process of origin of the universe from the Supreme Being, who appeared, for the sake of creation, as Pradhana and Purusa by lila and also became Brahma, Visnu and Rudra by fancy (chandatah), Saunaka referred to the tradition of inheritance of all these topics from Brahma³ and narrated the following story: Once Brama spoke to Marici and others about the highest type of Yoga which is capable of leading one to Kaivalya by effecting the complete cessation of the functions of the mind (samasta-vrtti-samrodhat kaivalya-pratipadakam). But as success in this kind of Yoga requires strenuous efforts extending over many births and as it is often found that one fails to control the organs of senses and to get over their objects (visaya) even in a hundred lives, Marici and others requested the god to speak to them on some easier method of Yoga which could be practised with success even by a common man in a 37 We have already noted that in chap. 1 of the Visnudharma (folios 3 b-4 a) these topics have been said to have come down from Brahma to Saunaka successively through Bhrgu, Usanas, Saunaka's grandfather, and Saunaka's father.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 121 short period of time. Consequently, Brahma spoke on Kriya-yoga which consists in the constant propitiation of Narayana (i. e. Krsna) by sacrifice, worship, salutation, service, observance of vows and fasts, gratification of Brahmins, and other acts. Saunaka said that on the basis of Brahma's instructions Marici and other sages compiled treatises (sastra) on Kriya-yoga for the good of the people.people .-( Chapter 1). Next, going to speak on this Kriya-yoga, which liberates people from bondage, Saunaka narrated the story of king Ambarisa thus: Being desirous of bringing the duals (dvandva) to an end through Visnu's favour, king Ambarisa practised austerities with great devotion. Visnu was pleased, but he would not favour the king without putting him to test. He appeared before the latter in the form of Indra, gave himself out to be the god of gods ruling over the Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, Nasatyas, Maruts, Prajapatis, Sadhyas, Visvedevas and others, and asked the king to choose a boon. But the latter made it clear to him that he was not eager for having anything from Indra but was trying to please Visnu who ensured prosperity to Indra by killing Hiranyaksa, Hiranyakasipu and other demons, by recovering his kingdom from Bali, and by various other acts, and who was the creator, protector and destructor of the universe and the source of origin of the gods forming the triad. At these words of the king Visnu, in the form of Indra, pretended to be enraged and threatened the king with his thunder-weapon. But the latter pleaded innocent and remained unmoved. His unswerving devotion pleased Visnu so much that the god revealed himself in his real form, in which he has four hands and wears yellow clothes, and spoke briefly to the king on the best system of Yoga which is 'nirbija' and ends all miseries of life for ever (nirbijam atyanta-duhkha-samyoga-bhesajam). But as this type of Yoga too difficult for the king, he requested Visnu to tell him about such Yoga as could be practised by people like himself. Consequently, Visnu spoke of Kriya-yoga which puts a stop to all sufferings of life (klesa) and advised the king to be devoted to him heart and soul, to worship him constantly with flowers and other things as well as with the offer of highly valuable articles of gold, silver, etc., to think of him incessantly, and to see him everywhere and in all beings. Next, being requested by the king to speak elaborately on this Kriyawas 16 .

122 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS yoga, Visnu (called 'Kesava') referred him to his priest (purohita) Vasistha, who, he said, would tell him about it through his favour. Visnu then disappeared; and the king returned to his capital. ( Chapter 2). There he met Vasistha, intimated to him what Visnu had said, and requested him to speak on Kriya-yoga concerning Visnuworship. Vasistha narrated the story of Prahlada thus: Once Prahlada, a devotee of Narayana, told his high-priest Sukra, the chief of the Bhrgus, that he found in the body of Nrsimha all the three worlds as well as the gods, goddesses and Pitrs, and requ ested him to describe the method of worshipping this deity. Sukra said that if he really desired to worship Visnu, the lord of gods', he was to become a Bhagavata, because no mortal other than a Bhagavata is able to know Visnu rightly, or to eulogise him, or to see him, not to speak of merging in him.38 Sukra then spoke on the characteristics and praise of Bhagavatas (who respect the Brahmins and the Veda, practise ahimsa, have their minds absorbed in Visnu in many of their births, and are far superior to the performers of Tapas or austerity and of costly sacrifices), worship of Visnu in images with the offer of flowers, lamps etc., construction of temples for him, and siging of songs, recitation of hymns, and sounding of musical instruments during his worship. ( Chapter 3). Next, after defining 'upavasa' (fasting) 39 and pointing out its benefits, Sukra reproduced what Pulastya had said to Dalbhya in ancient times on the following topics: 38 39 Devotional service to Visnu 40 (-chap. 4); procedures and praise na hy abhagavatair visnur jnatum stotum ca tattvatah/ drastum va sakyate martyaih pravestum kuta eva hi // upavrttasya papebho yas tu vaso gunaih saha/ upavasah sa vijneyah sarva-bhoga-vivarjitah//-Folio 14 a. It should be mentioned that the Visnudharma adds great importance to fasting in Visnu-worship and prescribes it especially to females. 40 Viz., worship of the deity with fragrant flowers and other things, especially with fast; sweeping, washing, and besmearing of Visnu-temples with earth, cow-dung, substances of metallic preparation (? dhatu-vikara), and so on; offer of flowers, lamps, pots of sesamum, flags, and other things; narration of sanctifying stories; praise of Visnu as the highest god worshipped by Indra, women, Vaikhanasas, Parivrajakas, and others.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 42 123 of a number of Vaisnava vows and worships," some of which were described by way of reporting the dialogues of others; Krsna's speech to Arjuna on his own identity with Kala and unity with Arjuna, and also on the names of the principal holy places in which Krsna is to be worshipped under particular names (-Chaps. 35-36); description of 43 41 Viz., Sugati-dvadasi-vrata (in which 'Krsna' is to be worshipped and meditated upon, and his name to be repeated)-chap. 4; Eka-bhakta-vrata, Dvadasa-masika-krsnastami-vrata (in which 'Krsna' is to be worshipped), Kulavapti-dvadasi-vrata (alias Sukla-dvadasi-vrata, said to have been described to Bharata by his matamaha Kanva), Vijaya-dvadasi-vrata, Jayanty-astami-vrata, Atijayaikadasi-vrata, and Visnu-snapana-vrata (-chapters 6-12 respectively); Pusya-rksaikadasi-vrata, Pada-dvaya-vrata, Manoratha-dvadasi-vrata, and Asokapurnamasi-vrata (-chapters 17-20 respectively); Naraka-dvadasi-vrata-chap. 24; Tila-dvadasi-vrata-chap. 34; Sukrta-dvadasi-vrata-chap. 37; Asunya-sayanadvitiya-vrata-chap. 41. Worship of Visnu and his wife under the names of Janardana and Laksmi, Sridhara and Sri, and Kesava and Bhuti in the four months beginning respectively with Phalguna, Asadha and Karttika (chap. 5); Masa-rrksa-puja (chap. 27). 42 Pulastya reproduced the dialogues in which (i) Yajnavalkya spoke to Maitreyi on Manoratha-sampatti-karaka-vrata (chap. 13), Samprapti-dvadasi-vrata (chap. 14), Govinda-dvadasi-vrata (chap. 15), and Akhanda-dvadasi-vrata (chap. 16); (ii) Samkara spoke to Devi on Sobhana-pati-prapti-vrata (chap. 21) and Stri-dharma-vrata (chap, 22); (iii) Vasistha spoke to Arundhati on Naksatra-purusa-vrata (chap. 29); (iv) Maitreyi spoke to Siladhana (a sonless queen of Krtavirya, the Haihaya king) on Ananta-vrata (chap. 30). 43 These are as follows: Puskara, Gaya, Lohadanda, Citrakuta, Prabhasa, Vrndavana, Jayanti, Hastinapura, Kardamala, Kasmira (?), Kubjamra, Mathura, Kubjaka, Gangadvara, Salagrama, Govardhanacala, Pindaraka, Sankhoddhara, Kuruksetra, Yamuna, Sona, Purva-sagara (kapilam purva-sagare-fol. 68 b), Ganga-sagara-samgama, Devika-nadi, Prayaga, Vadarikasrama, Daksina Samudra, Dvaraka, Mahendradri, Arvuda, Asvatirtha, Himacala, Krtasauca, Vipasa, Naimisa, Jambumarga, Saindhavaranya, Dandaka, Utpalavartaka, Narmada, Raivataka, Nanda, Sindhu-sagara-samgama, Sahyadri, Magadha Vana, Vindhya, Odra (odre tu purusottamam-fol. 69 a). The corresponding chapter in Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3506 contains in fol. 61 a a few more names such as Kusvamadhya (?), Nepala, Mandodapana, Kiskindhya, Kasi, Visakhayupa, Viraja, etc. In this Manuscript Lohadanda has been named as Loladanda, Kasmira as Kahlara (P), and Magadha Vana as Madhava Vana.

124 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 44 hells in which sinners are punished for various sins, viz., adultery, killing of cows and women, denouncement of Visnu and the Brahmins, and so on (chap. 23); description and denouncement of Pasandas, and the atonements for seeing or touching them or for speaking with them (chap. 25); enunciation of the Apamarjana, which allays the troubles caused by malevolent rites (viz., abhicaras and krtyas), poison, evil Grahas, all kinds of fever and other diseases, and so on; method and praise of besmearing Visnu-temples with earth, cow-dung etc. and of presenting lamps there (chapters 31-32); glorification of gods, Brahmins, Vedas and sacrifices, and denouncement of those who decry them (chap. 33); eulogy of Visnu with the mention of his exploits in different incarnations (chap. 39); muttering of the different names of Visnu (inculding 'Kamapala') for security under different circumstances (chap. 40); statement of the causes of rebirths and release (chap. 42). After listening to the dialogue between Pulastya and Dalbhya Satanika requested Saunaka to speak on Dharma as described by Krsna to Yudhisthira. Consequently, Saunaka reported the statements made by Krsna on the following subjects: the names of the authors of the Dharma-samhitas; 45 hells, and gifts of shoes, mules, clothes and other articles to Brahmins for escaping these (chap. 45); glorificarion of Brahmins as well as of service and gifts made to them (chap. 46); praise of practice of various restraints, such as silence, sacrifice, celibacy, nonkilling, living on roots, fruits or leaves, fasting, lying on any 44 In chap. 28 there are the names of a large number of diseases caused by of the three humours of the body, viz., wind (vata), bile (pitta) and phlegm (kapha), various kinds of poison, different classes of Grahas such as Preta-grahas, Dakini-grahas, Vetala-grahas, Gandharvas, Yaksa-raksasas, Vinayakas, Balagrahas, and so on. 45 Viz., those of Manu, Vasistha, Parasara, Atreya, Gargya, Sankha, Likhita, Yama, Javali, Dvaipayana, Uma-Mahesvara (uma-mahesvaras caiva jati-dharmas ca pavanah-fol. 89 a), Kasyapa, Bahvayana, Sakuli, Agastya, Mudgala, Sandilya, Bhrgu, Angiras, Kasyapa, Uddalaka, Sumantu, Paulastya, Vaisampayana, Pisamgama, Indra, Varuna, Kuvera, Apastamba, Gopalaka, Surya, Harita, Yajnavalkya, the seven sages (saptarsayah), and others. For this list see also Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3506, fol. 76 a-b. The verse containing the names of Uma-Mahesvara and Kasyapa does not occur in Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3506.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 125 the ground, entrance into fire, and so on (chap. 47); description and praise of gifts of paddy, fuel, virgin girls (for marriage in the Brahma form), gold, cows, footwears etc. to Brahmins, especially to one widely learned in the Vedas-bahusruta (chapters 48, 53 and 58-60); enumeration of sixteen cases (including those of such Brahmins as are priests of villages, husbands of Sudra wives, sellers of the Veda, snake-catchers, and hen-pecked husbands) in which gifts, made, become unproductive (chap. 49); results of insulting or respecting a Brahmin (chap. 50); praise of a Brahmin who regularly repeats the Gayatri (chap. 51); praise of tapas (austerity) and satya (truth), and denouncement of anrta (untruth) (chapters 54 and 55); fasting and observance of the Eka-bhakta-vrata in different months (chap. 56); elevation and lowering of caste caused respectively by the due performance of one's own Dharma and by neglect of it (chap. 57); praise of fighting bravely and courting death in the battle-field; principles of war (samgrama-prasamsa-chap. 61); praise of avoiding meat and practising ahimsa (chap. 62). Saunaka then reported I. 1. Narayana's speech to Yudhisthira on the science of government (danda-niti, including the divinity and duties of a king, necessity of danda, and punishment for different kinds of crimes-chap. 63), praise of devotion to Visnu (chap. 64), and incarnations of Visnu including the Buddha (chap. 66); 2. Bhisma's statement to, Yudhisthira on remembering Visnu and muttering his names for allaying the effects of bad dreams (chap. 67); 3. Visnu's enumeration to Laksmi of the characteristics of those who become his favourites 48 (chap. 74); 46. Such people are those who are given to knowldge of Atman, avoid himsa, culture universal friendship, feel completely satisfied with whatever they possess, are truthful, upright and compassionate, look upon others' wives as mothers, are completely satisfied with their own wives, always remain engaged in lawful work, do not hesitate to give up their life for the sake of Brahmins, and so on. As regards females, they are to be devoted to their husbands and should culture love and service.

126 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 47 4. Prahlada's description of the powers of Visnu and his disc, his speech on Vaisnava Kriya-yoga, and his advice to Bali to become a Bhagavata (chapters 76-81); 5. Prahlada's narration, in chapters 83-91, of what Vasistha had said to Mandhatr on a number of vows** and gifts.4° Saunaka further spoke on the following topics: benefits of meditating on and rendering various kinds of devotional service to Visnu (chap. 71); practice of one's own duties as well as of the virtues such as kindness, tolerance etc., and shunning of unlawful work (vidharma) and association with uncultured people (gramya-sanga) (chap. 74); building of Visnu-temples, and construction of images of the god with gold, silver, copper, brass, stone, wood, earth etc. (chapters 75, 99); description of Visnu as Brahma and the source of the universe (chap. 95); process of origin of the world from Visnu, although he is unchangeable (aparinami-chap. 96); description and praise of Yoga said to have been declared originally by Hiranyagarbha (chapters 97-98); distinction of Yoga into Para and Apara, and their characteristics; description of a Visnu-image,50 which is to be constructed with 47 This Kriya-yoga is said to have been spoken out by Brahma, from whom it came down to Prahlada through Svirocisa Manu, RRtacaksus, Sukra and others. It includes construction of images and temples of Visnu with different materials, bathing of an image of Visnu with ghee and milk on different occasions, offer of various articles (including different kinds of cloth, viz., dukula, patta, kauseya, karpasika, etc.) and of select flowers and leaves (including Tulasi and Kala-tulasi). 48 Viz., Vikrama-vrata, Visnu-pada-traya-vrata, Suddhi-vrata, and Krsna- stami-vrata alias Devaki-vrata (chapters 83, 84, 89 and 90). 49 Viz., Go-dana, Tila-dhenu-dana, Ghrta-dhenu-dana, Jala-dhenu-dana, etc. (chapters 85-88 and 91). 50 The relevant verses, as reconstructed from Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscripts Nos. 1670 (folios 231 b-232 a) and 3506 (fol. 166 a-b), run as follows: karyas tu visnur bhagavan saumya-rupas caturbhujah/ salila-dhvanta-meghabhah sriman srivatsa-bhusitah// abaddha-mukutah sragvi hara-bhararpitodarah/ sviksanas caru-cikurah sulalatena subhruna/ svosthena sukapolena vadanena virajitah// kanthena subha-lekhena varabharana-dharina/ nana-ratnarcitabhyam ca sravanabhyam alamkrtah//

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 51 127 gold, silver, copper, brass, stone, wood, earth etc. or to be painted, and in which Brahma is to be contemplated during worship (chap. 99); description and practice of yama³¹ and niyama³ and the other means of attaining Yoga (yoganga), viz., asana, pranayama, dharana, dhyana and samadhi; detailed discourse on dhyana; praise of Yogins, who only are said to experience Visnu in his supreme state (chap. 100); due performance or neglect of one's lawful work causing birth in a higher or lower caste; discourses on universal duties 64 and on those enjoined by one's caste or order of life (chap. 101); means of attaining Advaitajnana; explanation of Visnu's highest state (param rupam) and his birth in parts on earth (chapters 102-103); measurement of time by kastha, kala, muhurta etc.; duration of yugas; state of Dharma and Visnu-Narayana's appearance in different forms (including Kalkin) in the different yugas (chap. 104); elaborate description of the evils of the Kali age (chap. 105). • For the effective glorification of Krsna-Visnu (also called Vasudeva) the Visnudharma has a number of devotional hymns, viz., Visnupanjara-stotra (chap. 69), Sarasvata-stava spoken out by Sarasvati (chap. 70), Visnvastaka (chap. 71), Bali's eulogy of Visnu's Sudrasana-cakra (chap. 78), two hymns for the removal of sins (papa-prasamana-stava pusta-slistayata-bhujas tanu-tamra-nakhangulih/ madhyena trivali-bhanga-bhusitena ca caruna/ supadah suru-yugalah sukati-gulpha-janukah// vama-parsve gada devi cakram devasya daksine/ sankho vama-kare deyo daksine padma-suprabham// urdhva-drstim adho-drstim tiryag-drstim na karayet/ nimilitakso bhagavan suprasasto janardanah// saumya tu drstih kartavya kimcit-prahasiteva ca/ karyas carana-vinyasah sarvatah supratisthitah// caranantara-samstha ca vibhrati rupam uttamam/ karya vasumdhara devi tat-pada-tala-carini / / yadrg-vidha va manasah sthairya-lambhopapadika/ nrsimha-vamanadinam tadrsim karayed budhah// 51 It consists of ahimsa, sama, asteya, brahmacarya, and aparigraha. 52 Consisting of samtosa, sauca, svadhyaya, tapas, and isvara-bhavana. 53 For the definition of 'samadhi' see Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 1670, fol. 233ª, and No. 3506, fol. 1673. 54 These are the eight gunas, viz., anasuya, daya, ksanti, sauca etc.

128 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS incidents -chapters 92-93), Arjuna's eulogy of Krsna (in which many connected with Krsna's infancy at Vrndavana have been mentioned -chap. 35), and many others (for which see chapters 2, 39, 68, 72, 76 and 103). 72,76 In connection with the above contents the Visnudharma narrates a number of stories, one of which is highly interesting and sheds a flood of light on the attitude of an important section of people towards Buddhism and other non-Vedic and anti-Vedic religious systems current in those days. This story, which has been given in chap. 25 in connection with the description and denouncement of Pasandas, runs as follows. 55 In ancient times the mortals, being pious through the due performance of their duties, could go to heaven at the mere wish, and the gods also grew stronger by getting their due share in the sacrifices. Consequently, the Daiteyas and Asuras could not prevail upon the gods. In course of time two Daiteyas, Sanda and Marka by name, intended to annihilate the gods and performed a dangerous krtya (a magic rite meant for destructive purposes), from which came out a dreadful figure called Mahamoha, who had a very dark body resembling a mass of darkness and was extremely fierce, haughty, deceitful and lazy. This Mahamoha was divided by Sanda and Marka into four parts, one of which decried the gods and Brahmins, another discouraged people from practising Yoga, the third engaged them in unlawful acts (vikarman), and the fourth deprived them of their jnana, made them accept ajnana as jnana under infatuation, and took delight in whatever went against the Vedas (veda-vada-virodhena ya katha sasya rocate). Thus produced by Sanda and Marka, this Mahamoha, 'who was adharma in person' (adharma-svarupah) and was polluted by pride and other vices, took his position among the people (lokesv eva vyavasthitah) and deluded them in various ways. By his misleading instructions he turned them worthless through infatuation (mohabhibhava-nihsaran) and made them discard their conscience as well as their respective duties enjoined upon them by their castes. Being mad with their wrong knowledge, these infatuated people set themselves to unlawful 55 tatrotpanno 'tikrsnamgas tamah-prayo 'tidarunah/ dambhadharah sathya-saro nidra-prakrtir ulvanah//-fol. 42 b.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 56 129 acts by defying the instructions of their friends and the learned people, to whom they gave replies with misleading and confusing arguments (prayacchanty uttaram mudhah kuta-yukti-samanvitam). They turned Pasandins (or Pasandas) and Vratyas, knew no sacraments, spoke highly of the food received from others (paranna-guna-vadinah), caused mixture of castes, did not care for the purification of the body, decried the rites sanctioned by the Vedas-Rk, Yajuh and Sama, and preached the doctrine of the non-existence of any thing (nanyadastiti-vadinah). They also spread their influence upon the less intelligent (alpa-mati) section of people and made them discard their own lawful duties and perform unlawful acts. Thus, they led themselves as well as others to hell (fol. 43 a-b). There is another story, given in chapters 102-103, which narrates the creation of Urvasi by the sage Narayana, one of the four sons of Dharma, the other three being Nara, Hari and Krsna. In this story it is said that while Nara and Narayana were practising austerities (tapas) and yoga in the Gandhamadana mountain, lions, tigers etc. (turned nonviolent and) moved about complacently in that mountain with deer',57 that, apprehending the occupation of heaven by Nara and Narayana, Indra sent Rambha, Tilottama and other nymphs with Cupid (Smara, Madana) and Spring (Vasanta) to distract the sages, that Nara and Narayana gave themselves out to the unsuccessful nymphs to be parts of Vasudeva who was catur-vyuha, mayin, and identical with Paramatman and pervaded and comprised all, and that, being propitiated by the nymphs, Narayana gave out a laugh and thus showed the entire universe, together with the gods, in his mouth. The other stories include those of Sambharayani's attainment of an extremely long life by performing the Masa-rksa-puja, and her narration to Indra and Brhaspati of the accounts of the previous Indras from her personal knowledge (chap. 27); (Kartavirya) Arjuna's 56 According to Laksmidhara, Candesvara and others, Pasandas are those who are extra-Vedic (pakhandadayo veda-bahyah-Krtya-kalpataru, I, p. 22; pakhanda veda-bahyah-Krtya-ratnakara, p. 28; and so on). Vallalasena takes Pasandins (or Pasandas) to mean those people who give instructions on antiVedic Dharma (pasandino veda-viparita-dharmopadestarah-Danasagara, p. 57). 57 simha-vyaghradayah saumyas ceruh saha mrgair girau.-Folio 241 a. 17

130 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS birth to her mother Siladhana as a result of the latter's observanee of the Ananta-vrata, his worship of Visnu in the form of Dattatreya, and his attainment of paramountcy through his favour (chap. 30); keeping a thousand lamps burning day and night in a Visnu-temple by Lalita (daughter of Citraratha, king of Vidarbha, and chief queen of Caruvarman, king of Kasi), who was, in her previous birth, a mouse in a Visnu-temple (constructed by Maitreya, a Brahmin minister of the king of Sauvira) on the bank of the river Devika and chanced to keep a lamp burning there in course of her escape for fear of a cat (chap. 32); Virabhadra of Vaidisa, who, being at the point of death in the Vindhya forest, was found lying on heated sand by Brahmin named Pipita (chap. 37); the two Asvins' meeting at Pratisthana with Aila Pururavas, who would not see them without being properly dressed, their explanation to him of the transitoriness of everything on earth by referring to the opinions of Kapila, Pancasikha, Magarista (?), Janaka, Hiranyagarbha, Jaigisavya and Devala on the highest bliss (param sreyah), and their instructions to the king on karma to be done by him (chap. 38); appearance of Dharma in the form of a Candala, and his instructions to Yudhisthira on Visnu-worship (chap. 64); Visnu's assumption of the form of a Brahmin and meeting with Janaka, and the latter's praise of the former as the highest truth (chap. 65); an elephant's eulogy of Narayana and getting free from the clutch of a crocodile living in a lake on the Citrakuta mountain (gajendra-moksana-chap. 67); a Ksatriya's turning a Raksasa after death, his attack in his new form on two Brahmins, who saved themselves from his hands by citing the Visnu-panjara-stotra and the Sarasvata-stava, and his going to Salagrama for practising austerities (chapters 69-70); Cedi-raja Vasu's loss of power of moving through the sky, his consquent fall into Patala, a nether world, his self-protection from the hands of the Danavas, who tried to take his life, and his rescue from there by Visnu (chap. 72); Aditi's prayer to Krsna for the safety of her sons and the security of Indra, and Krsna's entrance into Aditi's womb to be born as her son Vamana (chap. 75); birth of Vamana, and his sending of Bali to Sutala, a nether world, saying that as soon as Bali would go against the Brahmins, he would be bound with Varuna's

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 131 noose (chapters 76-77); appearance of Visnu's Sudarsana-cakra before Bali after it had been worshipped by the latter to stop the mischief it had been doing to the pregnant wives of Daityas by its passage through the air (chap. 78); Sumana's dialogue with Sandili, a Brahmin woman, who found Sumana residing happily in heaven with her husband and having an odorous and beautiful body by worshipping Visnu with various articles dear to themselves and by bathing the god with ghee (chap. 81); and king Mandhatr's attainment of royal fortune as a result of serving, with his devoted wife, in a Visnutemple and attending upon Yogins in his previous birth as a cruel Sudra, who was always bent on doing harm to others, maltreated his chaste and devoted wife, and failed to earn his livelihood by agriculture (chapters 82-83). In chap. 94 Saunaka is found to narrate the story of a wicked, treacherous and undutiful Ksatriya named Vimati as follows: Being discarded by his parents and relatives for his misconduct Vimati used to maintain his family by killing animals. During the summer he met in a forest a sage who was afflicted with thirst. Vimati took pity on him and took him to a lake. The sage was satisfied, and, learning Vimati's conduct by meditation, advised him to utter the word 'Govinda' incessantly. Vimati did so and felt happy. In course of time Vimati died and was reborn in a Brahmin family with the power of recalling the memory of his previous births. In this life he remembered all the previous sufferings and had great indifference. He eulogised Krsna for his pity, and the latter freed him from all sins and gave him final release. From the above indication of the contents of the Visnudharma it is evident that the entire subject-matter of this work has been set out in the forms of a number of primary and secondary dialogues, which are as follows: 1. Principal interlocutors-Saunaka and Satanika. A. Saunaka reports to Satanika the interlocutions between the following persons: (1) Brahma and the sages (Marici and others) (chap. 1). (2) Visnu and Ambarisa (chap. 2). Vasistha and Ambarisa (chapters 2-42). [Vasistha reports to Ambarisa the interlocution between (i) Sukra and Prahlada (chap. 3).

132 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Sukra reprodruces to Prahlada the interlocution between (a) Pulastya and Dalbhya (4-42). Pulastya reproduces to Dalbhya the interlocutions. between Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi (chapters 13-16), between Samkara and Devi (chapters 21-22), between Vasistha and Arundhati (chap. 29), between Maitreyi and Siladhana (chap. 30), between Krsna and Arjuna (chapters 35-36), between the Asvins and Aila Pururavas (chap. 38).] (4) Krsna and Yudhisthira (chapters 43-63). (5) Bhima and Yudhisthira (chap. 67). (6) Prahlada and Bali (chapters 76, 79-83). [Prahlada reports to Bali the interlocution between Vasistha and Mandhatr (chapters 83-91). Vasistha reports to Mandhatr the dialogue between Gauramukha and Pariksit (chapters 89-90).] In the remaining chapters Saunaka speaks direct to Satanika. A perusal of the Visnudharma shows that it is purely a Vaisnava work on the glorification and worship of Krsna-Vasudeva, who, in his supreme state, is said to be the same as Visnu or Narayana. According to this work, Krsna (often called Visnu or Narayana) is allpowerful (isa), unborn, eternal and boundless, and, being the Universal Soul, resides in the heart of all. He has no beginning, transcends both the real and the unreal (sadasatah param-chap. 2) and is identical with the Supreme Brahma. He has two states of existence -'para' and 'apara', and is consequently both dual and nondual (bhedabheda-svarupastha-chap. 1). Although he is unchangeable (apari- nami), he is the cause and source of creation, which is explained from the standpoint of 'bhedabheda' (duality and nonduality-chap. 96). It is he who, in creation, becomes Pradhana and Purusa by lila, and also Brahma, Visnu and Rudra by fancy (chap. 1). He comprises all including the universe, which lies in his belly (brahmandam udare- sayam). For the good of created beings he incarnates himself on earth in parts (kala, amsa) as Vamana, Nara-Narayana, and others.58 58 Vamana is said to be a partial incarnation of Vasudeva-vasudevah

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 59 133 Even Krsna (son of Vasudeva and Devaki) is said in more places than one to be a partial incarnation of this Supreme Krsna*9 (also called Vasudeva) who, as has already been said, is the same as Visnu in his supreme state. In chap. 102 Vasudeva is identified with Paramatman and said to be catur-vyuba and mayin.6° As to the best way of realising Krsna-Visnu the Visnudharma puts great stress on the practice of Yoga, which it characterises in the following verse of Saunaka (said to Satanika): "parena brahmana sardham ekatvam yan nrpatmanah/ sa eva yogo vikhyatah kim anyad yoga-laksanam//" ( Chapter 99, fol. 231 a). "It is unity, O king, of the (individual) soul with the Supreme Brahma that is well known as yoga. What else is the characteristic of yoga?" kalayavatirnah (chap. 76, fol. 161 b); amsavatirnena ca yena (chap. 76, fol. 162 a). Nara and Narayana describe themselves as extremely small parts of Vasudeva.- sa sarva-vasi-devatvad vasudevety udahrtal/ vayam amsarsakas tasya caturvyuhasya mayinah// (chap. 102, fol. 244 a). Krsna-Visnu calls Langali Rama (i.e. Balarama) the second part of himself.- Cf. dvitiyo yo mamansas tu ramo 'nantah sa langali (chap. 66, fol. 127 a). In chap. 101 Brahma and other gods are said to be parts of Visnu.yato hi devatah sarva brahmadyah kuru-nandana/, amsabhuta jagad-dhatur visnor avyakta-janmanah// (fol. 239 b). 59 Krsna-Visnu, being worshipped by Devaki, assured the latter of his birth as her son, saying: "bhavisyaty acirad devi mad-amsena sutas tava" (chap. 90, fol. 206 a). See also tol. 206 bavapa ca tato garbham devaki vasudevatah/ ajayata ca visvesah svenamsena janardanah// By calling Langali Rama the second part of himself Krsna-Visnu suggests that Vasudeva Krsna also was one of his parts. 60 For the relevant verse see foot-note 58 above.

STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 134 It classifies Yoga into two types, viz., para and apara¹, which are better known as jnana-yoga and kriya-yoga (i. c. karma-yoga) respectively; and it briefly distinguishes between these two types saying: "jnana-yogas ca samyogas cittasyaivatmana tu yah/ yas tu bahyartha-sapeksah sa kriya-yoga ucyate//" ( Chapter 80, fol. 183 a-b). "Yoga by knowledge is communion of the mind with Atman, but Yoga by work is what depends upon external objects." 62 By the apara type of Yoga (or Kriya-yoga, which is intended for those who are unable to control their mind in spite of their sincere devotion for the god) it means worship of the deity in images, with the practice of yama and niyama, which are said to be the causes of success in Yoga (chapters 99-100). It looks upon karma (work) as the only cause of bondage for creatures, and says that karma causes the distinction between Ksetrajna and Paramatman (bhedas ca karma-janitah ksetrajnaparamatmanoh chap. 96, fol. 225 a). It follows the Bhagavad-gita in stating that it is selfless work and constant devotional service and complete self-surrender to the god which can liberate people from the bonds of karma and make them merge into him. By way of pres- - 61 For detailed treatment of para and apara yoga see chap. 99 (folios 230 b-232 b). 62 Cf. chap. 2 bhaktyatipravanasyapi cancalam tvan-mano yadi/ mayy upasye bhaved bhupa kuru mad-rupinim tanum// (fol. 10 a). 63 Chapter 2, fol, 10 a-b- mad-bhava mad-yajana mad-bhakta mat-parayanah/ mama puja-paras caiva mayi yanti layam narah//. ... ... ... mat-kriya-paramah param/ padam apsyasi ma bhais tvam mayy arpita-mana bhava | | mayi samnyasya sarvam mad-artham kuru karmani Chapter 79, fol. 176 b- ... karosi yani karmani tani deve jagat-patau/ samarpayasva bhadram te tatah karma prahasyasi// ksina-karma mahabaho subhasubha-vivarjitah/ I layam abhyeti govinde tad brahma paramam mahat// For relevant verses see also chap. 1 (fol. 4 b-tannisthas tad-gata-dhiyas tatkarmanas tad-asrayah/ etc.).

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS cribing karma which the Vaisnavas should do for freedom from bondage and the consequent rebirths, this work extols not only worship, muttering of mantra, constant remembrance of the deity, service to Visnu-temples, presents and donations, fasting and other austere practices, and so on, but also the due performance of Varnasramadharma as known from the Vedas, the Smrtis (especially that of Manu), and the Puranas. In chap. 74 Visnu is found to speak to Laksmi on the characteristics of his favourites, thus: 64 65 "O beautiful lady, those people are my devotees who fare, without transgressing even by mind the duties declared by Sruti and Smrti. "As I took the form of Brahma, the Vedas came out of my mouth; and it is to me appearing in the forms of Manu and others that the Smrtis are known to belong. "Sruti and Smrti are my command. He, O auspicious one, who worships me with all his belongings by violating that (command of mine), does not attain me, ☐ venerable one, a violator of (my) command as he is. "To him, who does not deviate from his own duty or indulge in doing harm (to others) and who always has devotion for 1 me, am not difficult to attain."66 It is further said that by the due performance of his duties enjoined by his caste and order of life a member of a lower caste is elevated in his next birth to the immediately higher caste, that the reverse happens in case of neglect of the same, and that an honest 64 For mention of some of these practices see chap. 47 (folios 93 a ff.). 65 See especially chapters 42, 44, and 52. 66 sruti-smrty-uditam dharmam manasapi na ye narah/ samullanghya pravartante te bhakta mama bhamini// brahma-rupa-dharasyasyan mama veda vinihsrtah/ manvadi-rupinas caiva samastah smrtayah smrtah// srutih smrtir mamaivajna tam ullamnghya yajec chubhe/ sarvasvenapi man devi napnoty ajna-vighatakrt// yah sva-dharman na calati himsadau yo na sajyyate/ vahatas tasya mad-bhaktim sadaivaham na durlabhah// Folio 157 a-b.

136 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS and dutiful Brahmin is blessed with final release.67 Thus, the Visnudharma firmly believes in caste-system, which, in its opinion, is a pointer to a man's progress to the attainment of final emancipation. As regards the highest (para) type of Yoga (i.e. Jnana-yoga) the Visnudharma says that it is this Yoga which finally severs the bonds of karma and leads one to kaivalya by putting a stop to all the functions of the mind. Although this type of yoga is thus 'the veritable ambrosia ensuring the complete cessation of sufferings', it is extremely difficult to attain and requires strenuous efforts extending over many births, because one finds it very difficult to control the organs of senses and to get over their objects (visaya). On the other hand, being deluded by their own karma creatures regard their souls as separate from Paramatman and undergo rebirths.68 So, the Visnudharma extols and prescribes the much easier Kriya-yoga, which leads definitely to jnana and thus makes one experience unity with Brahma by completely severing the bonds of karma."" According to this work Yoga benefits all without distinction of caste and sex, and this distinction is determined by their progress in Yoga, because by its practice one may pass from womanhood successively through the different states of existence as members of different castes beginning with that of a Sudra, until one becomes a Brahmin and attains final emancipation. By naming By naming a number of number of persons of different castes and sexes who attained success in Yoga, 70 it asserts that the proper 67 Chapter 101, folios 236 b-237 a- 68 69 sudra-dharman asesena kurvan sudro yathavidhi/ vaisyatvam eti vaisyas ca ksatriyatvam sva-karmakrt// vipratvam ksatriyah samyak dvija-dharma-paro nrpa/ vipras ca mukti-labhena yujyate sat-kriya-parah// pasyaty atmanam anyatra yavad vai paramatmanah/ tavat sa bhramyate jantur mohito nija-karmana// Chapter 96, fol. 225 a. samksinasesa-karma tu param brahma prapasyati; and samksina-karma-bandhasya na bhedo brahmana saha, Chapter 96, fol, 225 a. 70 These persons are Jaigisavya, Asita, Hiranyanabha, Janaka, Tuladhara and other Vaisyas, Pelavaka and other Sudras, Maitreyi, Sulabha, Gargi, Sandili, Dharmavyadha and others. (Folio 230 a-b),

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS practice of Yoga is sure release.71 137 to lead one of any caste or sex to final It has already been said that in chap. I the Visnudharma describes Narayana (i.e. Krsna-Visnu) as 'bhedabheda-svarupastha', and in chap. 96 it explains the creation of the universe from the standpoint of 'bhedabheda'. So, there is little scope for doubt that the philosophical view advocated by the Visnudharma is 'bhedabheda' or 'dvaitadvaita' (duality and nonduality). As a matter of fact, this work expressly says: "advaitam paramartho hi dvaitam tad-bheda ucyate/ ubhayam brahmano rupam dvaitadvaita-vibhedatah//"""" The Visnudharma, as we have it at present, is decidedly a work of the Bhagavatas. It prescribes the sectarian mantra 'om namo vasudevaya' (chap. 79, fol. 181 b), and characterises and highly praises the Bhagavatas at more places than one." It looks upon these sectaries as superior to the performers of austerity (tapas) and costly sacrifices, and says that to be eligible for Visnu-worship one has to become a Bhagavata, because no one other than a Bhagavata can merge in him or even eulogise him rightly or see him or have true knowledge about him." It further adds that it is by great religious merit that a person becomes a Bhagavata devoted to Bhagavat Janardana, who is the same as Paramatman, and that the god of death does not allow his servants to lay their hands on the sincere Bhagavatas.76 75 We shall now try to determine the period of composition of the present Visnudharma, which has been recognised very widely as a 71 See chap. 98. 72 Chapter 96, fol. 225 b. 73 See chapters 3, 79 and 80. 74 For the relevant verse see foot-note 38 above. 75 paramatma ca bhagavan visvakseno janardanah/ tad-bhaktiman bhagavato nalpa-punyena jayate// Chapter 79, fol 176 a. 76 Cf. ye tu bhagavata loke bhavitas tat-parayanah/ pujayanti sada visnum te vas tyajyah suduratah// (said by Yama to his servants).- Chapter 80, fol. 184 a. 18

138 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 78 respectable source of Dharma. As a matter of fact, on the strength of some verses of the Bhavisya-purana" Laksmidhara, Candesvara and others accept the Visnudharma to be as much authoritative on Dharma as the Puranas and rank it with the Mahabharata, Ramayana etc.? These scholars as well as many others quote from it numerous verses, and sometimes even complete chapters, in their respective works. For instance, verses are found quoted from chap. 4 in Gadadhara's Kalasara, from chapters 2, 4, 10, 25, 32, 81 and 105 in Gopala-bhatta's Haribhakti-vilasa, from chapters 48 and 53 in Govindananda Kavikamkanacarya's Dana-kaumudi, from chapters 9, 25, 88 and 91 in Candesvara's Krtya-ratnakara, from chapters 6, 11, 12, 14, 16, 21, 24, 25, 34, 49, 5º, 53, 61, 79, 83, 84 and 86-89 in Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani, from chap. 81 in Devanabhatta's Smrti-candrika, from chapters 22, 25, 38, 60 and 86-88 in Apararka's commentary on the Yajnavalkyasmrti, from chapters 25, 45, 53, 58-60, 85-88 and 91 in Vallalasena's Danasagara, from chapters 9 and 13 in Jimutavahana's Kalaviveka, and from chapters 96-98 in the Svetasvatara-upanisad-bhasya ascribed to Samkara. In his account of India Alberuni names the 'Visnudharma', to which he ascribes the verses quoted by him from the present Vissnudharmottara, obviously by taking the latter work to be a part of the former. The present Visnudharmottara, which, as we shall see afterwards, was composed between 400 and 500 A.D., betrays These verses are the following: and 29 77 79 a astadasa-puranesu yani vakyani putraka/ tany alocya mahabaho tatha smrty-antaresu ca// manv-adi-smrtayo yas tu sattrimsat parikirtitah/ tasam vakyani kramasah samalocya bravimi te// astadasa-puranani ramasya caritam tatha/ visnudharmadi-sastrani sivadharmas ca bharata// etc. (quoted above). For these verses see Krtya-kalpataru, I, pp. 24 and 25, Krtya-ratnakara, pp. and 30, and so on. 78 See Krtya-kalpataru, I, p. 25, and Krtya-ratnakara, p. 30. See also Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 22. 79 According to S. K. Belvalkar the ascription of the Syctasvatara-upanisadbhasya to Samkaracarya 'is more or less debatable.'-See Belvalkar, Shree Gopal Basu Mallik Lectures on Vedanta Philosophy, p. 218. 79 a Under Visnudharmottara' below. See also Hazra in Journal of the University of Gauhati, III, 1952, pp. 43-58.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 139 its knowledge of the Visnudharma by claiming, in two of its verses,' 80 and by giving some stories developed from the same as examination of the genuine we have found we have found to be the latter part of this work which are decidedly based on and occurring in it. 80 a By a critical Agneya-purana (alias Vahni-purana)81 that this work originally concerned itself with the Fire cult of the Agnihotri Brahmins of the Yajurveda, dealt with the five Puranic topics as well as with the various duties and sacrificial rites of these Brahmins, and advocated the worship of Rudra in the form of Agni, that it passed through three main stages before attaining its present form, extent and character, and that in the second stage it was appropriated by the Vaisnavas (most probably the Bhagavatas) who modified this work with chapters and verses from the Visnudharma dealing with Vaisnava Kriyayoga and having Vasistha and king Ambarisa as the principal interlocutors. As these chapters and verses common to the two works are very numerous and as the Visnudharma has not yet been printed and its verses are not numbered, we give below a list of only those chapters of the two works which have large numbers of verses common to them. Agneya-purana 28. 1-36 28. 37 ff. 29. 1 ff. Chapter 11 " 31 Visnudharma Agneya-purana Chapter 1. Chapter 36 " 2. Chaps. 3 Visnudharma Chaps. 82, 86 and 87. Chapter 88. (verses 27 ff). " 37 and 66 " 59 (verses 46 ff.) Chapter 52. 1 1 3 40 . etc. " - " " etc. 81. 61. That the Agneya-purana took these common chapters and verses from the Visnudharma, can be established by the following evidences: (2) At the beginning of chap. 28 of the Agneya-purana the sages 80 For these two verses see foot-note 24 above. 80 a For the relevant chapters containing these stories and for the grounds of their later date, see under 'Visnudharmottara' below. 81 Io 1951 I discovered this work from the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 8090, which was found wrongly described in Shastri's Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Cat., V, p. 422 to be a Manuscript of the spurious Agni-purana published so often from different parts of India, 8 z For our analysis of the genuine Agneya-purana (alias Vahni-purana) see Our Heritage (a half-yearly Bulletin of the Research Department, Sanskrit College, Calcutta), I, 1953, pp. 209-245, and II, 1954, pp. 77-110. See also Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, V, 1956, pp. 411-416,

140 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS request Suta to speak on the various acts which please 'Krsna' and yield final liberation; and in compliance with this request Suta agrees to tell them elaborately about (Kriya-) Yoga, which, he says, was spoken out to him by his father, who had received it from Vahni, the Fire-god, through Marici. He then goes on to speak on Kriya-yoga and narrates the story of king Ambarisa in almost the same way and the same words as those in Visnudharma, chapters 1-3, the main difference between the two sources being that in the Visnudharma this story is narrated by Saunaka to king Satanika and Kriya-yoga is said to have been spoken out first by Brahma to Marici, Bhrgu and others and then by Vasistha to king Ambarisa through Visnu's favour, whereas in Agneya-purana, chap. 28 it is narrated by Suta to the sages of the Naimisa forest as an interlocution between Vahni (the Fire-god) and Marici, and the discourse on Kriya-yoga is traced back to the Fire-god (Vahni, Agni), who is said to have narrated it first of all to Marici and others and from whom Vasistha is said to have heard it during a sacrifice (instituted most probably by Marici).83 (2) In all the Manuscripts of the Agneya-purana we have been able to consult, the colophon of chap. 28 (which contains the said story of king Ambarisa and has, in its latter part, many verses in common with chap. 2 of the Visnudharma) has been given as 'devambarisasamvado nama dvitiyo 'dhyayah', clearly in imitation of the colophon of chap. 2 of the Visnudharma which runs as 'iti visnudharmesv acyutambarisa-samvado nama dvitiyo 'dhyayah'. (3) It is in chap. 28 of the Agneya-purana (and not in chap. 3. wherein the story is given as to how the Fire-god came to speak to Marici and other sages on the various Puranic topics) that Vasistha is mentioned for the first time and said to have heard the Kriya-yoga from Vahni during a sacrifice (instituted most probably by Marici). (4) In several places of the Agneya-purana the words 'visnudharma', 'vaisnava dharma' and 'vaisnava-dharma' have been used, though in their literal sense. It should be mentioned here that in chap. 3 of the Agneya-purana the Fire-god is said to have spoken to Marici and other sages on the 83 For the relevant verses see Agneya-purana, chap. 28, verses 10-12 (fol. 97 a) and 118-119 (fol. 101 a).

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 141 different Puranic topics during the sacrifice instituted by Marici, there being no mention of Vaisnava Kriya-yoga or of Vasistha as a hearer, that it is as late as in chap. 28 (which, as we have already seen, is constituted of verses mostly taken from Visnudharma, chap. 2) that Vasistha is mentioned for the first time and said to have heard discourses on Vaisnava Kriya-yoga from the Fire-god during a sacrifice (most probably the one instituted by Marici),84 and that in several places of the Agneya-purana Vasistha has been made to refer either to Valni as the original speaker or to the interlocution between Vahni and Marici.85 So, there is no doubt that the interlocution between Vasistha and Ambarisa marks a later stage in the constitution of the present Agneya-purana than that in which this Purana was a work of the Agnihotri Brahmins of the Yajurveda and had Vahni and Marici as interlocutors. From what has been said above it is evident that the Agneya-purana borrowed the common chapters and verses from the Visnudharma. Our critical analysis of this work has shown that it must have been recast by the Vaisnavas not later than 500 A.D.88 The way in which the language and contents of the Visnudharma, as well as the colophon of chap. 2 and the speaker Vasistha in chapters 2-42 of the same work, have been utilised in the Agneya-purana, shows definitely that at the time when the Agneya-purana was recast by the Vaisnavas, the Visnudharma attained sufficient recognition in society. That this recognition was very wide and deep-rooted is quite evident from the facts that in two of its verses the Visnudharmottara claims to be the latter part of the Visnudharma and that the Bhavisya-purana mentions it once in the Madhyama-parvan (7. 8 b-11), and twice in the Brahmaparvan (4. 87-89, and 216. 36-37) together with 'the eighteen Puranas', the Ramayana (called 'Rama's biography'), the Sivadharma, the Mahabharata and the Saura-dharma. It may be mentioned here that the present Brahma-parvan of the Bhavisya-purana cannot be dated 84 For the relevant verses see Agneya-purana 28. 10-12 (fol. 9;a), 28. 118-9 (fol. 101 a), and 29. 3 (fol. 101 a). 85 See, for instance, Agneya-p, 29. 3 (fol. 101 a), 53. 4 (fol. 161 a), and 54. 35 a (fol. 165 b). 86 See Our Heritage, II, 1954, p. 79.

142 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 90 much later than the sixth century A.D." Like the Agneya-purana the Bhavisyottara also has a good number of chapters in common with the Visnudharma,88 and it may be that these chapters were taken by the Bhavisyottara from the Visnudharma.89 As the Bhavisyottara must have been compiled between 700 and 800 A.D., and most probably towards the end of the eighth century," it could not have been utilised by the Visnudharma, except in the case of two chapters to be mentioned hereinafter. Whatever the relation between the Bhavisyottara and the Visnudharma may have been, it is evident that the Visnudharma attained wide recognition as a respectable authority on Dharma by the beginning of the fifth century A.D. So, it could not be composed later than about 300 A.D. This lower limit of the date of the Visnudharma finds full support in the facts that this work, though speaking speaking so often of Visnu-worship, is completely free from Tantric elements, that it does not betray its knowledge of any work written later than the end of the second century A.D., and that it mentions the Naksatras in the old order from Krttika.1 We know from the evidence of the Srauta- and the Grhya-sutras, the Yajnavalkya-smrti, and the latest books of the 87 See R. C. Hazra, Studies, p. 172. 88 These common chapters are the following: Bhavisyottara (i.e. Bhavisya-purana IV) Chapter 107 Visnudharma Bhavisyottara (i.e. Bhavisya-purana IV) Chapter 77 Visnudharma Chapter 14. Chapter 27. 78 "" 15. 108 " 29. " 79 16. " " 130 " 32. 82 " jiang dai 37. " 152 86. " 106 " " 30. 153 88. " Bhavisya-purana 1. 107 Visnudharma, chap. 18. Bhavisya-purana I. 20, and IV. 15-cf. Visnudharma, chap. 41. 152 89 The line 'varahena pura proktam mahapataka-nasinim' of Bhavisya-purana IV. (which agrees with Visnudharma, chap. 86) raises doubt about the source of the Bhavisyottara and seems to suggest that at least this chapter was derived by the Bhavisyottara from the Varaha-purana 90 See Hazra in Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, III, 1953, PP. 24-26. 91 See Visnudharma, chap. 26 (fol. 44 a).

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 143 Mahabharata that the old arrangement of the Naksatras from Krttika to Bharani was in vogue at least some time after the beginning of the third century A.D. When this order of the Naksatras was changed we do not know definitely. It is only as late as about 55° A.D. that we find in the Brhat-samhita of Varahamihira the order of the Naksatras from Asvini to Revati to be an established fact in all parts of India. So, it can be held, and not quite unreasonably, that the old order of the Naksatras held ground at best down to the latter half of the fifth century A.D. 95 92 As regards the upper limit of the date of the Visnudharma it may be said that it mentions the Smrti works of Manu and others, incorporates verses from the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad-gita," and the Manu-smrti, frequently denounces the Pasandas, especially the Buddhists," speaks very highly of the Bhagavatas, 97 and narrates the interesting story of Mahamoha," which must have preceded that (in Visnu-purana III. 17-18) giving out the Buddha to be an incarnation of Visnu. So, the Visnudharma is to be dated not earlier than 200 A.D. Thus, the date of composition of the present Visnudharma falls between 200 and 300 A.D. 92 Ibid., chap. 44 (folios 88 b ff.), in which the Dharma-samhitas of Manu, Vasistha, Parasara, Atri, Gargya, and many others have been mentioned. For these names see foot-note 45 above. 93 For instance, Mahabharata I. 74. 30 (aditya-candrav analanilau ca) etc. occur in Vishudharma, chap. 55 (fol. 101 b), Mahabharata XIII. 115. 64 (caturo varsikan masan) etc. occur in Visnudharma, chap. 62 (folios 112 b ff.), Mahabharata III, 190. 13 b-21 a, 23, 25-26 a, 30, 36, 43 b-44, 46 b, 49, etc. occur in Visnudharma, chap. 105 (folios 255 a ff.), and so on. 94 For verses of the Bhagavad-gita see Visnudharma, chap. 2 (fol. 9 a-manmana bhava mad-bhaktah), chap, 66 (fol. 123 a-yada yada hi dharmasya glanih). In chap. 35 (folios 65 b-66 a-bhagavan uvaca-purvam eva yathakhyatam ranarambhe tavarjuna, etc.) there is a clear reference to the Bhagavad-gita. 95 For verses of the Manu-smrti (3. 2, 6. 2, etc.) see especially chap. 101 of the Visnudharma. 96 See Visnudharma, chapters, 25, 66, 73, 105, and so on, 97 Ibid., chapters 3, 80, etc. 98 Ibid., chap. 25.

144 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS This early origin of the Visnudharma must not be taken to be disproved by the mention of the Buddha as an incarnation of Visnu in Visnudharma, chap. 66, because from an examination of the different lists of Visnu's incarnations as given in the Puranas, Pancaratra Samhitas, and various other works we have found that the Buddha came to be regarded as an incarnation of Visnu not very much earlier than 500 A.D.99 The relevant verses of Visnudharma, chap. 66 run as follows: tatah kali-yuge ghore samprapte 'bja-samudbhava/ suddhodana-suto buddho bhavisyami vimatsarah// bauddham dharmam upasritya karisye dharma-desanam/ naranam atha narinam dayam bhutesu darsayan// raktambara-vyanjitangah prasanta-manasas tatha/ sudra dharmam pravaksyanti mayi buddhatvam agate// eduka-cihna prthivi na deva-grha-bhusita/ bhavitri prayaso brahman mayi buddhatvam agate// skandha-darsana-matram hi pasyantah sakalam jagat/ sudrah sudresu dasyanti mayi buddhatvam agate // alpayusas tato martya mohopahata-cetasah/ narakarhani karmani karisyanti prajapate// svadhyayesv avasidanto brahmanah sauca-varjitah/ antya-pratigrahadanam karisyanty alpa-medhasah// na srosyanti pituh putrah svasru-svasurayoh snusah na bharya bhartur isasya na bhrtya vinaya-sthitah// varna-samkaratam prapte loke 'smin dasyutam gate/ brahmanadisu varnesu bhavisyaty adharottaram// dharma-kancuka-samvita vidharma-rucayas tatha/ manusan bhaksayisyanti mlecchah parthiva-rupinah//1 There is no scope for doubt that these verses (in which Visnu speaks to Brahma) are later additions and were inserted into the Visnudharma 99 See R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 41-42. 100 00 The above text of these verses is based on those given in Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscripts Nos. 1670 (fol. 127 a-b) and 3506 (fol. 101 a), which have variants too numerous to be noted here. The line eduka-cihna prthivi na deva-grha-bhusita' is the same as Mahabharata III. 190. 67 b.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 145 after its language and contents had been utilised in the genuine. Agneya-purana in the second stage of its modification. The reasons for such a conclusion are as follows: (1) In connection with a description of the Kali age Agneya-purana 29. 41 (fol. 102 b) names the Buddha in the line 'sudra dharmam vadisyanti saksad buddhopajivinah'; but here the Buddha appears as the founder of a heretical faith, and there is not the slightest indication anywhere in the whole work that it looked upon the Buddha as an incarnation of Visnu. There is, of course, mention of 'ten incarnations' (dasavatara), without any complete list, in three places of the Agneyap., viz., in chapters 3, 23 and 28, but this mention does not necessarily mean that the Buddha was one of them. According to the Narasim ha-purana, which, as we shall see afterwards, has a good number of verses in common with the Agneya-purana, the ten manifestations or incarnations (pradurbhavah, avatarah-Narasimha-purana 54. 1, 6) are the following: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama (son of Dasaratha), Balabhadra (Rama), Krsna and Kalki (Narasimha-purana 36-54).101 Thus, in its list of Visnu's ten manifestations or incarnations the Narasimha-purana names both Balabhadra and Krsna, but not the Buddha. As a matter of fact, the Buddha came to be included in the list of Visnu's incarnations in place of Krsna after the latter had ceased to be looked upon by a considerable section of people as a partial incarnation of Visnu and had become the Bhagavat himself. (2) Like the Narasimha-purana, Visnu-purana and other early works, the Visnudharma names both Krsna and 'Langali Rama' as partial incarnations of Visnu in the thirteen lines (on folios 126 b-127 a) immediately preceding those on the Buddha incarnation quoted above. It also names Kalkin, son of Visnuyasas, in the nine lines following those on the Buddha. (3) By way of describing dharma in the different Yugas in chap. 104 the Visnudharma names Krsna and Kalkin, but not the Buddha. IOI That Narasimha-purana 36. 9 a, mentioning the Buddha as one of the manifestations of Visnu, is undoubtedly spurious, we shall see below (under 'Narasimha-purana'). 19

146 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (4) In many other places of the Visnudharma the incarnations of Visnu have been named, 102 but there is no mention of the Buddha as an incarnation of this god anywhere except in the verses of chap. 66 quoted above. On the other hand, the Buddha has clearly been identified with Mahamoha born of the malevolent rite (called krtya) performed by the demons Sanda and Marka for the destruction of the gods, and his followers have been denounced at every step. The name Mayamohaka' for Visnu, as occurring in king Ambarisa's eulogy of the god in chap. 2 (fol. 7 b) of Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 1670 of the Visnudharma, need not be taken to be based on Visnu-purana III. 17 and 18, which narrate the story of Visnu's creation of the delusive figure called Mayamoha from his own body. In the other Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript (No. 3506) of the Visnudharma, which we have been able to consult, this name has been given as 'Mayamohana' (which, therefore, has to be taken in its literal sense). The tradition of Visnu's deluding creatures with his Maya is very ancient and well known. The Visnudharma itself says that pleasure in the association of Pasandas and partiality for their logic are caused by Visnu-maya.10 103 Moreover, the story of Mayamoha in Visnu-purana III. 17-18 is to be dated later than the middle of the fourth century A. D. and probably not earlier than 500 A.D.104 102 For instance, chap. 28 names Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Trivikrama, Rama (Dasarathi), Vaikuntha, Nara and Hayagriva, chap. 39 omits Vaikuntha and Nara of chap. 28 but adds Bhargavottama, chap. 40 names only Narasimha, Rama (Dasarathi) and Parasurama, chap. 67 names Kaurma, Matsya, Varaha, Vamana, Tarksya and Narasimha, chap. 68 names Varaha, Vamana and Narasimha (the line 'ramo ramas ca ramas ca etc.' on fol. 137 a not occurring in Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3506), and chap. 90 names Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Asvasiras, Jamadagnya, Raghava and Krsna (who is called 'recent'-sampratam). The incarnations, named in chap. 66, are the following: Varaha, Kapila (said to be the first incarnation in a human form-janami kapilam rupam prathamam paurusam mama-fol. 126 a), Nrsimha, Kurma, Vamana, Dattatreya, Bhargava-rama, Raghava-rama, Krsna, Langali Rama (said to be the second part of Visnu-dvitiyo yo mamamsah-fol. 127 a), and Kalkin, the verses on the Buddha being spurious. 103 pasandesu ratih pumsam hetu-vadanukulata/ jayate visnu-mayambhah-patitanam duratmanam// Chapter 3 (fol. 11 b). 104 See R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 24-25.

tara. THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 147 The early date, to which we have assigned the Visnudharma, must not be taken to be that of all its chapters and verses. We have already seen that a part of chap. 66, dealing with the Buddha incarnation, is spurious. There are also two more complete chapters which were derived, most probably at a much later date, from the BhavisyotThese are chapters 19 and 20, which are practically the same as Bhavisyottara (i.e. Bhavisya-purana IV), chapters 80 and 105 respectively. It is remarkable that in the other chapters of the Visnudharma in which Pulastya speaks to Dalbhya, the latter has been addressed as 'dvija- srestha', 'brahman,' 'mahamune' etc.; but in the said two chapters (19 and 20) he has been addressed as 'parthiva', 'nrpa,' 'manujesvara,' 'rajan' etc. This abrupt change in the personality of Dalbhya is due to the facts that in the Bhavisyottara, from which these chapters were derived, Krana speaks to king Yudhisthira, and that when chapters 80 and 105 were incorporated into the Visnudharma to form chapters 19 and 20 respectively, no attempt was made to adapt them to the interlocutors Pulastya and Dalbhya of the Visnudharma. It will be interesting here to describe the circumstances which, according to the Visnudharma, necessitated and inspired the composition of this Vaisnava 'Sastra' as early as in the third century A.D. From a study of ancient Indian history we learn that during the few centuries from the time of Asoka Maurya's reign, there was a great spread of Buddhism in and outside India. The Visnudharma amply testifies to the spread of this and other heretical faiths, the followers of which it calls Pasandins' (or 'Pasandas') and defines thus: "sruti-smrty-uditam dharmam varnasrama-vibhagajam/ ullanghya ye pravartante svecchaya kuta-yuktibhih// vikarmabhirata mudha yukti-pragalbhya-durmadah/ pasandinas te duhsila narakarha naradhamah//"105 "Those, who fare wilfully by transgressing, with puzzling argumentation, the duties (dharma) arising from the distinction of castes and orders of life (and) declared by Sruti and Smrti, and who, being infatuated, set themselves to unlawful work and are maddened by 105 Chapter 25 (fol. 42 a).

148 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (their) skill in reasoning, are Pasandins, the worst of men, having reproachable conduct and deserving (residence in) hell." We have already seen in the story of Mahamoha how, according to the Visnudharma, these Pasandins encouraged indiscipline in society by decrying Sruti and Smrti and encouraging the violation of their prescriptions as regards the rites and duties of the different castes and orders of life and the performance of unlawful acts. In giving a dismal picture of the evils of the Kali age in chap. 105 the Visnudharma repeats many verses of Mahabharata III. 190106 and adds: "People will hanker after property earned by unfair means, and females (eager for union with males) will ardently wish (to imitate) the beauty and gestures of prostitutes. " << ... ... ... ... People will forsake the Vedas and the twice-born (Brahmins) and direct their attention to other things. "Then, being overpowered by Time, they will forsake Brahma and other gods who enjoy shares in the sacrificial offerings and are read of in the Vedas by the twice-born (people), and, being given to (heretical) dialectics, will create other deities. ... ... ... ... At that time they will have much regard neither for bath nor for (physical) purification. "The minds of people will not be inlined to devotion for Visnu in the Kali age, after Krsna, being characterised by blackness, comes down. "During the first quarter (of this age) people will decry Hari, but at its end none will utter his name. " ** ... "If, during this Kali age, in which the earth will be crowded with many heretics, a virtuous person will utter the words 'I bow down to you, Krsna' (krsnaya te namah), "the heretics, decrying the system of the four stages of life, will create delusion (of the mind) by means of (their) power of (rationalistic) argumentation and the rogues. 106 For these verses see foot-note 93 above.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 149 "Then this earth, turning heretical to a very great extent and (consequently) growing uncultured, will be made difficult (for residence) by the pseudo-ascetics. "At that time the vile Sudras, bearing the signs of mendicancy, will not serve the twice-born people, nor will they practise their own dharma. "Some will become Utkocas 107 (?), Saugatas, Mahayanists, and the heretical Kapilas and Bhiksus, "while other wicked Sudras will turn Sakyas, Sravakas, Nirgranthas and Siddhaputras in the Kali age. "Turning wandering mendicants the villainous Sudras will undergo no (physical) purification, have crooked nature, and habitually live on food perpared by others. "These and many others, as well as the Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas etc. will turn heretics. "These mean people will misappropriate state revenue, rob the householders, remain concealed by (assuming) the appearance and dress of sages, and subsist on trade. "Being perverted by (heretical) reasoning (and) by compositions (made) in the language of Mlecchas, people in the Kali (age) will respect neither the twice-born (Brahmins) nor the Vedas. "With their growing extremely wicked in this way, others (also) will turn wicked by following their path and moving about in a wrong way. "Then people will utter unrefined speech, denounce the Vedic works, and make the world stray from the right path. >>108 107 In Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3506 (fol. 179 b) this name has been given as Utkauca' (utkaucah). 108 The relevant verses, as reconstructed from Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscripts Nos. 1670 (folios 255 b-257 a) and 3506 (folios 179 a-180 a), are the following: anyayopatta-vittesu karisyanti narah sprham/ vesya-lavanya-bhavesu sprham yosit karisyati//. nara veda-dvijams tyaktva bhavisyanty anyato-mukhah/ yajna-bhaga-bhujo deva ye veda-pathita dvijaih/ brahmadyas tan parityajya narah kala-balatkrtah// hetu-vada-para devan karisyanty aparams tada//

150 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Regarding the state of Vaisnavism and Krsna-worship in those days the Visnudharma further says in chap. 73: "(Those) who, though ignorant, take themselves to be wise by following heretical dialectics and, with their knowledge screened by nescience (avidya), consider a life dependent on Krsna to be not worth living, "and (also those) who take to misleading argumentation in refuting the statements in favour (of the authority) of the Vedas,-in their heart Kesava never becomes a dear guest. bahu mamsyanti na snanam napi saucam tada narah// na visnu-bhakti-pravanam naranam nrpa manasam/ bhavita tu kalau prapte krsne karsnyopalaksite// vinindam prathame pade karisyanti harer narah/ yugante tu harer nama naiva kascid grahisyati// ... yuge I bahu-pasanda-samkirne jagaty asmin kalau krsnaya te namas tatra sukrti yadi vaksyati// hetu-vada-balair moham kuhakais ca janais tada/ pasandinah karisyanti caturasramya-dusakah// pasanda-bhutam atyartham jagad etad asamskrtam/ bhavisyati tada bhupa vrtha-pravrajitotkotam// na tu dvijati-susrusam na sva-dharmanupalanam/ karisyanti tada sudrah pravrajya-lingino 'dhamah// utkocah saugatas caiva mahayana-ratas tatha/ bhavisyanty atha pasandah kapila bliksavas tatha// sakyah sravaka-nirgranthah siddhaputras tathapare/ bhavisyanti duratmanah sudrah kali-yuge nrpa, / nihsauca vakra-matayah para-pakanna-bhojinah/ bhavisyanti duratmanah sudrah pravrajitas tada// ete canye ca bahavah pasandah purusarsabha/ brahmanah ksatriya vaisya bhavisyanti tathapare// raja-sulka-harah ksudra grhastha-parimosakah/ muni-vesakrti-cchanna vanijyam upajivakah/ na dvijan na kalau vedan pujayisyanti manavah// mleccha-bhasa-nibandhais tu hetu-vadair vikulitah// evam tesv atidustesu vimarga-parivartinah / bhavisyanty apare dustas tesam marganuyayinah// asamskrtokti-vaktaro veda-sastra-vinindakah / agad unmarga-kartaro bhavisyanti tada narah//

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 151 "There is no expiation for those wicked people who decry his (i. e. Krsna's) activities by taking him to be a human being. "Some (people) call him a god, some of poor intellect give him out to be a man, (while) others, being deluded by his Maya, take Visnu (to have been born) in the state of a lower animal"109. From the above description of the effects of the spread of the heresies in the Indian society of those days it is evident that the indefatigable efforts of the heretic dialecticians, especially Buddhist, helped the wide spread of the anti-vedic faiths, especially Buddhism, among all grades of people and encouraged the breach of social discipline as understood by the followers and supporters of the Vedic way of life. As a matter of fact, it was the irrefutable reasonings of the heretic dialecticians which popularised their faiths to such a great extent and made the people lose faith in Krsna and other deities respected and worshipped by the followers of the Vedas and the Varnasrama-dharma. We have already seen how the heretical dialectics have been mentioned repeatedly in the Visnudharma with feeling of awe and frustration. In a verse of chap. 105 it has been said that in the Kali age even a fool gives an irrefutable answer by taking to the (heretical) way of reasoning." So, it is was clearly the wide spread of the heresies, especially Buddhism, which encouraged the composition of the present Visnudharma and similar other sectarian 'Sastras' of the Saivas, Sauras and others. 110 We have already seen how, by following the teachings of the Bhagavad-gita, the present Visnudharma advocates the practice of Yoga for the realisation of Visnu-Brahma; and it can hardly be denied 109 heyam krsnasrayam vrttim manyante hetu-samsritah/ avidyopahata-jnana ye 'jnana jnana-maninah// veda-vada-virodhena kuta-yuktim upasritah/ ye kesavas taddhrdaye na kadacit priyatithih// manusam tam manusyatve manyamanah ku-buddhayah/ karmani ye 'sya nindanti na tesam niskrtir nrrnam// kecid vadanti tam devam manusyam calpa-medhasah/ tiryaktve capare visnum mayaya tasya mohitah// (fol. 154 b). 110 hetu-vadasrito mudho dadaty uttaram aksayam. -Folio 259 a.

152 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS that this advocacy was inspired to a great extent by the teachings of the heretical faiths, for which theistic Yoga was the most suitable antidote. Though prescribing this Yoga to all including women and Sudras, the Visnudharma extols the Vedas and the Varnasrama-dharma and tries hard to keep the people aloof from the influence of the Pasandas. It declares Sruti and Smrti to be the commands of the Bhagavat himself, 1/41 regards the Purana, the Manava Dharma (-Sastra), and the Vedas together with the Angas as authoritative by origin and consequently unquestionable, and says: "One should know that man to have derived his origin from a part of an Asura who bears hatred towards Govinda and decries the twice-born (Brahmins) and the Vedas"112. It tries to impress upon the people that one's caste depends wholly on one's actions in the previous births (chap. 57), that the due performance of one's caste-duties without any feeling of attachment, hatred, etc. destroys the previous actions causing rebirth,118 and that it is the Vedas, the deities, the sacrifices and the twice-born (Brahmins), who, being eulogised, praised and worshipped with much respect, confer the highest bliss (param sreyah)". It speakes very highly of Brahmins as well as of various kinds of service ¹15 rendered to them and glorifies them saying that they can reduce people to ashes, create Lokas and Lokapalas, and lead the aspirants to heaven, and that it was they who made the waters of oceans saline and undrinkable and whose fire of wrath still burns in the Dandaka forest (chap. 52). It encourages the cultivation of various personal virtues such as universal friendship, satisfaction, kindness, tolerance, regard for others' wives as mothers, and so on, and urges the avoidance of attachment, untruth, himsa and other vices, and especially of association and conversation with the Pasandas not only during Visnu-worship and the observance of the Vaisnava I I I For the relevant verse see foot-note 66 above. 112 Chapter 3 (fol. 11 b). 113 Chapter 42 (fol. 87 a). 114 Chapter 33 (fol. 63 b). 115 Such as rendering hospitality to Brahmins as guests, shampooing their feet, saving them at the sacrifice of one's own life, and so on.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 153 Vratas but also on other occasions¹ 116 In case of conversation with these heretics it prescribes expiations, viz., citation of particular Vedic and Puranic verses, remembering of Acyuta, and looking at the sun, and in case of physical contact with them the expiation consists of all these acts as well as bath (chap. 25, fol. 42 a-b). So, the ideal society aimed at by the Visnudharma is Brahmanical. According to this work a 'worthy son' (sat-putra) is one who is devoted to the gods and Brahmins, knows the Sastras, and attains Nirvana (chap. 30); and as regards feeding of Brahmins in a Sraddha ceremony it does not favour any discrimination between them but says that the squint-eyed, hunchbacked, poor, diseased and similar other Brahmins are mixed with those who are versed in the Veda.117 up to be As to the position of females in society the opinion expressed by the Visnudharma is not always very encouraging. According to this work, women, as creatures, are inferior even to the Sudras, for it says that by practising Yoga a female can become a Brahmin by passing successively through the states of Sudras and others in her different births (chap. 98). It prescribes Vratas and worships to females but says that in undertaking these a virgin girl must seek the permission of her parents, and a married woman, of her husband. "A wife has no separate sacrifice, Sraddha or fast. She attains her desires merely by serving her husband."118 In case her husband forsakes her, or dies, or, turning a heretic (pasanda), does not allow her to worship. Visnu, she is to worship her husband and remain faithful to him in body and mind.119 If she is a widow, she should remain chaste, give 116 See chapters 3 (fol. 11 b), 4 (fol. 16 a), 5 (fol. 17 a), 7 (fol. 20 a), 8 (fol. 22 b), 14 (fol. 26 b), 15 (fol. 27 b), 22 (fol. 36 b), 73 (fol, 153 a), and especially 25. 117 118 na brahmanam parikseta sraddha-kale hy upasthite/ sumahan parivado hi brahmananam pariksane// kanah kubjas ca sandhas ca daridra vyadhitas tatha/ sarve sraddhe niyoktavya misrita veda-paragaih// Chapter 52 (fol. 97 a). naiva tasyah prthag yajna na sraddham napy upositam/ bhartr-susrusanenaiva prapnoti stri yathepsitam// 119 Chapter 22 (fol. 36 b). 20 Chapter 22 (folios 35 b-36 a).

154 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS libation of water to her deceased husband, worship Visnu daily by observing fast, receive guests, perform the Agnihotra rites without Mantra (agnihotram amantrakam), make gifts, and do other pious acts (chap. 22). It proFrom what has been said above it is evident that the present Visnudharma is an interesting work and has to be valued for its religious matters and more particularly for its philosophical views." seems to be a compilation rather than an original work, and it is bable that it derived chapters and verses from more ancient works of the same type. Chapter 152 of the Bhavisyottara (i. e. Bhavisya-purana IV), which agrees remarkably with chap. 86 of the Visnudharma, is said in verse 5 to have been 'spoken out in ancient times by the Varaha' (varahena pura proktam). Moreover, in some chapters of the Visnudharma the deity has been named much more frequently as Narayana or Visnu than as Krsna, while in others the name 'Krsna' or 'Vasudeva' is very common. From the facts that in chap. 1 of the Visnudharma Satanika wants to hear 'discourses on Narayana' (narayana-katha), that in the first two chapters of this work the name 'Krsna' occurs very rarely, and that the Visnudharmottara, which, as we shall see below, was written by the Pancaratras, claims to be a part of the Visnudharma, it appears that in its origin the Visnudharma also was a Pancaratra work but was later on appropriated and recast by the Bhagavatas to its present form and character. The text of the Visnudharma, that we find now in Manuscripts, does not agree completely with those used by the commentators and Nibandhawriters. A very large number of verses ascribed to the 'Visnudharma' in these works is not found in the present text of this work. For instance, none of the numerous verses of the Visnudharma' quoted in Raghunandana's Smrti-tattva, Govindananda Kavikankanacarya's Sraddha-kaumudi, Suddhi-kaumudi and Varsa-kaumudi, Madanapala's Madana-parijata, and Madhavacarya's Kalanirnaya, occurs in the present Visnudharma; of the 103 metrical lines quoted from this work in Gopalabhatta's Haribhaktivilasa, only 37 are traceable in the present text of the same; and among the verses ascribed to the 'Visnudharma' 120 See especially chapters 2, 42, 79-80, 95-100, and 102-3.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 155 in Apararka's commentary on the Yajnavalkya-sinrti, the number of those which are not traceable in the present Visnudharma, is considerable. This large proportion of the untraceable verses indicates that a more extensive text of the Visnudharma was once current in of India. some parts As to the provenance of the present Visnudharma it is very difficult to say anything definitely. From the facts that of the holy places named in chap. 36 almost all belong to Northern India, and a large number to its western part, and that the small river Devika has been mentioned on two occasions (in chapters 32 and 36) and considered as much sacred as the Ganga, Yamuna etc., it appears that the Visnudharma was written in the north-western part of Northern India.