Part 6 - A picture of medieval India according to Bhoja

The Shringara-manjari-katha presents a graphic picture of the times in which it was written. The main scene is laid in the city of Dhara, but the stories take us throughout the length and breadth of India. The territorial boundaries of the political states changed with the rise and fall of kingdoms one after another. Social life with its time-honoured customs and traditions evolved differently in the different parts of the country, and yet, as we read of various happenings in the different cities we feel underneath it a deep and constant flow of cultural homogeneity which presents the picture not of this or that part of the country, but of the whole of India, one and undivided. Geography Shringara-manjari-katha has a large geographical canvas. From Udyana in the north Peshawar we come to the Simhaladvipa in the South, and from Kachcha on the sea in the west to Pragjyotisa in Assam in the east. Among the countries Avanti, Kaccha, Nepala, Pancala, Magadha and Malaya are mentioned. Avanti, the ancient name for Malwa, with its capital Ujjayini is well-known. The present text also refers to it as: astyavantisu srimatyujjayini nama nagari | The city of Ujjayini is described as being presided over by Sri Mahakalanatha. His heart was captivated by Ujjayini's charm, so he left his abode on Kailasa and took up his residence there. In all the three stories where Ujjayini has been mentioned, Vikramarka or Sahasanka or Vikramaditya is referred to as the king. Kaccha and Nepala are what they are today. The land of Nepala is described as being fragrant with the musk of deer. Ahicchatra (modern Ramnagar in Bareilly District, U.P.), the capital of North Pancala, and Kanyakubja (modern Kanoj), the capital of the south Pancala, are mentioned. Magadha is an ancient name and is identified with South Bihar. Malaya is Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. Hastinagapura is the same as Hastinapura, the capital of the Kurus, northeast of Delhi. There is also a reference to a Hastigrama, a town of the Brahmanas, on the bank of the Ganges. Kausambi (modern Kosam on the Yamuna, near Allahabad), the capital of Udayana (Vatsa country). and Vidisa (modern Bhilsa) are well known. Prag- 1. For the identification of the places Nundolal Dey's 'The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India' has been followed.

jyotisa is identified with Gauhati in Assam, and in the text is described as being adorned with krsnaguru. The corrupt form of Tamralipti (modern Tamluk in Midnapore District, Bengal)-Tamalipti- is given in the text. Kundinapura (modern Kaundinyapur in Chandur taluk of Amraoti) is ancient capital of Vidarbha Vatsagulma (Basim in Akola District, M.P.) is another town of Vidarbha as Rajasekhara states it to be. But Vatsyayana mentions Vatsagulma and Vidarbha as though in two different countries. However, Vatsagulma situated in Vidarbha would suit the context of the story here better on account of its being in the vicinity of Manyakheta. Nasikya (modern Nasik) is incidentally referred to. Lata (Southern Gujarat), Kerala (Malabar Coast), Konkana and Dravida (South India) have been mentioned. Kanci is Conjeevaram and its description as having conquered the three worlds by its wealth of beauty would be proper since it was the capital of the powerful Pallavas since the ninth century. Uragapura was the capital of the Colas and Pallavas, who after being forced into obscurity by Kalabhras, Pandyas and Pallavas reached their zenith of power in the 11 th century and ruled over the whole of the Tamil country. It is referred to as having a powerful king. The town has been variously identified with Uraiyur on the southern bank of Kaveri near Trichinopoli (present name Tirucherapalli), Nagapattam and with Madura.6 Another great capital of a powerful contemporaneous kingdom mentioned is Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Hyderabad State). It is said in the 8 th tale that the hero was in Pundravardhana and desired to join the services of the sovereign of Manyakheta. From Pundravardhana he went to Vidisa, thence to Bhaillasvamidevapura, from there to the town of Purnapathaka, and then to Manyakheta. Pundravardhana (modern Mahasthan near Bogra) is in North Bengal. Vidisa is modern Bhilsa in Madhya Bharat. Bhaillasvamidevapura is 12 miles from Bisnagara. From there he entered Purnapathaka in Berar. The identification of this town is somewhat difficult. But in the modern district of Parbhani (C.P.) we read of a town called Purna, which is on the way to Manyakheta. We can 2. Kavyamimamsa, (KM) p. 10. afa vatsagulmam nama nagaram | 3. Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, V, 6, 35-36. 4. Classical Age, p. 244. 5. Dey, op. cit, p. 211. 6. Upadhyaya, B.S., India in Kalidasa, p. 67. manojanmano devasya kridavaso vidarbhesu 7. In two stone inscriptions of the twelfth century this place is mentioned. See Ray, H.C., The Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, pp. 706, 999. 8. Vide, The Imperial Atlas of India, Map No. 56, 70°-19°. For Private & Personal Use Only.

take that as identical with our Purnapathaka. Manyakheta was the capital of the Rastrakutas whose feudatory was Siyaka, Bhoja's grandfather. He had, however, thrown off the suzerainty of Manyakheta. After the Rastrakutas, Taillapa, the Calukya, who ultimately defeated Bhoja's uncle Munja, was ruling from Manyakheta; therefore the echo of Manyakheta being the seat of a sovereign ruler is heard in the text. Simhala-dvipa is the southernmost extremity of India that is mentioned, and Udyana is the northern-most. Udyana is identified with Uddayana situated on the Swat river. The most important city mentioned is, of course, Dhara, the capital of the Paramaras. It was during the rule of Vairasimha or Siyaka II that Dhara became the capital of the Paramaras. ¦ In the Navasahasanka-carita of Padmagupta, a poet at the court of Bhoja's uncle Munja and his father Sindhuraja, Dhara is called the 'other Capital' (apara kularajadhani). 11 And historians record that Bhoja rebuilt the city in the middle of the 11 th century and transferred the capital there from Ujjayini. 12 It is taken to be the most distinguished city during Bhoja's time, and the description of the city that we get, though conventional, speaks of the wealth and prosperity of the city. Two islands outside India are mentioned, namely, Suvarnadvipa and Ratnadvipa. Suvarnadipa is in South East Asia and can be roughly identified with Sumatra. Ratnadvipa is one of the islands near Java. There is the usual reference about these places that merchants from India went to these places and returned laden with riches. Among the mountains the well-known Himacala, Kailasa, Meru, Anjanagiri. Mandara, Rohanacala, Amaragiri, Mekala, the Suktimantaparvata and the Sriparvata are mentioned. Mekala is the same as Amarakantaka from which the Narmada takes its rise. Sriparvata is in the South. 13 Rohanacala is the Adam's peak in Ceylon, also called Sumana-Kuta. Suktimantaparvata is a portion of the Vindhya range. 9. In the History of the Paramaras Ganguly gives a list of names of Mandalas of the Paramaras of Malwa from available records. Among them Purnapathaka is mentioned (p. 236). 10. 11. Udaipur Prasasti of the Kings of Maalwa, Epigraphia Indica, I, 233 ff. I. 90. jatastasmadvai risihonyanamna loko brute vajratasvaminam yam | satruvargam dharayasernihatya srimadvara sucita yena rajna || jetuh puri sa'pyaparasti yasya | dhareti namna kularajadhani || 12. Ganguly, op. cit., p. 27. 13. In a Prakrit inscription from a Buddhist site at Nagarjunikonda we read siriparvate vijayapuriyapurvvadisabhage vihare etc. The editor of the inseription observes that the tradition in Tibet that Nagarjuna spent the concluding part of his life

Among the rivers Kalindi is mentioned. Narmada is called Mekalakanyaka. The Ganga is described as Tripathaga and Mandakini. Sipra in Ujjayini and its tributary Gambhira are mentioned. Tapi is given a rare variant, Tapani. The present Sabarmati is called Sambhramavati. 14 Tamraparni in the South is conventionally described as having pearls. Kingship and Administration The head of an Imperial State was called Cakravartin. He ruled over the neighbouring kings. The description of the king of Uragapura (9 th tale) is the conventional description of a sovereign. sa caturasiteh samantanam dvadasanam ca mandalesvaranam pattrimsatasca rajakulikanam dvasaptate- ratavikapallipatinam ca caturvimsateh katanamekavimsateh kokananam patrisatasca velakulana- madhipatyamakarot (p. 66 ) The reference to the thirty-six 'Rajakulikas' is a reference to the ruling royal families. 15 The Konkanas are the people of Konkan, the Karvatas are the people of the villages and the Velakulas refer to the people living in the thirty-two ports that might have existed then. The Atavikas refer to the forest tribes of Sabaras, Bhillas, Barbaras and the like. The whole of the kingdom was divided into a number of mandalas (provinces) and governors were appointed who were called mandalesvaras. Mandalas were further divided into bhogas and visayas. The samanta was in charge of the visaya. Together with these the other two officials mentioned herein are the dandapasika and the mahattama. The Bhoga was further divided into pathaka. We have a reference to the Malayavisaya and the Purnpathaka. In those days kingship was not nominal. The king was the constitutional as well as the executive head of the State. The life of a victorious king was a judicious mixture of duty and pleasure. His burden of the care of his kingdom (rajyapalana) and studies of the Sastras (Sastravicara) were lightened by his hobbies like fighting elephants (Gajendrananuyodhayan) and riding horses (vajino vahayan), practising archery (sayakabhyasa), witnessing the practice of warfare (yuddhavalokana) and learning the use of arms (sastrabhyasa). Light amusements and sports like huntin a monastery in southern India associated with his name is preserved upto the present day in the name 'Nagarjunikonda'. (Epigraphia Indica, XX 1929-30, p. 22, Inscription F. Second Apsidal Temple Inscriptions (line 3). Edited by Prof. J. Ph. Vogel). This would help us to locate the exact site of the Sriparvata. 14. KM calls it Svabhravati (chapter 17, p. 94). 15. This reference to the thirty-six ruling families is important, as it is earlier in point of time to Kalhana's (c. 1159 A.D.) reference in the Rajatarangini. Mr. C. V. Vaidya, op. cit., (p. 388) gives a list of the thirty-six Ruling families and holds the view that it was drawn up during the time of Candra Gahadavala who ruled from 1080-1100 A.D.

ing (mrgaya), roaming through woods (udyanaviharana), watersports (jala-krida), the company of beloved (pranayinisamagama), meeting of friends (pranayagosthi) and witnessing dramatic performances (preksa) were equally important for him. These occupations speak of his accomplishments in the aforesaid arts and sciences also and bring to our mind the picture of a king, sound and healthy in mind, body and spirits. A good ruler was also a good artist (kulagrham kalanam) and a learned man (pramadodyanam vidyalatanam). Dharma and Niti found equal place in his life (prabhavo dharmasya, nidhanam niteh). The result was that kingship did not leave him either a ruler without learning, or an artist without character or a master without appreciation of the beauties of life. His accomplishments helped him to build up and live fully a well-balanced life. The gifted people sought the patronage of kings in all their endeavours. There were held special courts where the works and achievements of the poets, artists and others were examined, and the king usually signified his appreciation of merit by awarding handsome gifts. As a matter of fact following this normal practice of the kings of old like Satavahana, Sudraka and Sahasanka it was laid down in works like the Kavyamimamsa that kings should hold literary courts to promote the advancement of cultural activities.10 When fortunately the king was gifted with poetic talent himself, he found it easy to collect the best talents of the day round him. It is interesting to observe that the Shringara-manjari-katha is set in the atmosphere of one of these literary assemblies of the times. It was summer and the king, surrounded by a few relatives, friends and learned people, was seated in the bejewelled and cool dharagrha on the central high pavilion. The king is requested by those present to tell them a new story for their delectation. There is an exchange of views regarding the virtue in speaking about oneself. Ultimately the king starts off with the tale which would please his friends as well as the literary connoisseurs. This small introductory passage in Shringara-manjari-katha indicates the traditions of the actual literary courts of Bhoja. 17 The king, it may be supposed, ruled justly but there can be no doubt that his personal prejudices and predilections played an important part in the administration; on his favours or frowns depended even the lives of the people. 18 16. 17. Chapter X, pp. 54, 55. See supra, chapter two, pp. 16, 17. 18. For instance, gifts of crores of gold pieces, rich dresses and presents of elephants were given to Devadatta (5 th tale) and Lavanyasundari (6 th tale). Similarly king Samarasimha offered 4000 villages to Sundaraka (11 th tale) and king of Purnapathaka offered 1000 villages to Ratnadatta (8 th tale),

Though the king was thus the most important limb of the state it is surprising to note that his political or military achievements had very little effect on the lives of the people. The wars against other kingdoms were taken to be the normal occupation of the warrior class and were not considered worthy of literary record. This would explain why a work like the Shringara-manjari-katha written by a king like Bhoja, ever engaged in military exploits and political alliances, remains completely silent on such activities. The City and its Social Set-up The city was the most important centre of all activities. A picture of the cities of medieval India preserved in literature emphasises a highly rich and pompous way of living. All the wealth of the State was concentrated there. As stated above, the story of Shringara-manjari-katha is laid in the city of Dhara, the capital of the Paramara rulers. The picturesque description of Dhara with its wealth of details throw interesting light on some of the important features of the city and its planning which was as important in those days as it is today. Bhoja in his Samaranganasutradhara devotes a whole chapter to town-planning. 19 The details of the layout of the city and life therein are dealt with here in order to bring into bolder relief the continuity of our cultural traditions, whose roots can be traced as far back as Kautilya's times. It was It was On The city (puri, nagari) had an outer wail (prakara). 20 whitewashed; for it is described as being white as snow. circular in form and was studded with various precious stones. it were watch-towers (attalaka), 21 with high decorative indentation (uttunga kapisirsaka).²² The city wall had four gateways (pratoli) 23 While on the other hand Ghuda was unnecessarily harassed, put in prison and fined by king Vajramukuta. King Samarasimha first eagerly sent his men to punish Ratnadatta and in the last tale we read that the queen's nose and ears were cut off and she was put in prison and Muladeva's wife and the merchant were deported by the king. 19. Book I, 10. gefaamerai 2314: The features of the city described in this work are mentioned in the Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva, so it has been quoted often. 20. gzza fafqueanfa gayog heyd 1 prakaraparikhattaladvararathyadhvabhih saha || ( Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva, I, 10, 1) 21. The watchtowers were in four directions. prakare'ttalakastasmin diksu diksu caturvidham | (Ibid., vs 31) 22. The kapisirsaka is a very old architectural feature. Together with the moat and towers it is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthasastra, Book II, chapter III. In Prakrit it is called Kausisaga. Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva gives its measure in height to be an hand. hastoccam kapisirsakam syat | (Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva, I, 10, 30 ) . 23. The modern word Pola is derived from the word pratoli, Prakrit paoli. kuryat pratolih sarvesu mahadvaresvatha drdhah | drdhargalascendrakilah kapataparighanvitah | ss vs. 38.

with broad and heavy doors (vitataghanakapata). There was a moat (parikha) encircling the entire city wall. In the city there were main roads and streets (rathya) lined with shops (vipani) and palatial mansions (prasada), stuccoed (saudha) and lavishly decorated with various precious stones and gold. The residential quarters were variously called prasada, bhavana, grhaka, vesma and sannivesa-sthana. Besides the extensive outskirts of the buildings (bhavanopasalyani) the city had innumerable public parks (upavana, udyana, pramadavana), artificial hills (krida-saila), lakes (saras, tadagu), wells and tanks (vapi, dirghika, puskarini) and public baths (dharagrha) artificially watered (yantra-dhara-grha). These were in such an abundance in the city that it appeared to be prasadamayamiva bhuvanatalam kevalam, saudhamaya iva nutanah sargavataro, vidhedadhikamayamiva mahimandalam upavanamayamiva disam 1 (p. 2) Prasadas were palatial mansions. They were very high and were white-washed as the term 'saudha' signifies. 24 But they are variously designed as kanaka-saudha', 'sphatika-vesma', 'marakata-mani-prasada' etc. probably because of the predominance of the decorative materials. • Some of the architectural details are very well brought out in the descriptions. The salient features are pinnacles of gold (kanakasikhara) or of precious stones. 25 The candrasalas were the special apartments on the terraces from which the moonrise was observed. 20 These rooms were white-washed and the walls and ceiling were decorated with paintings, and were studded with sapphires. The buildings had several storeys (tala) besides the terraces (utsanga). Utsanga is explained as any horizontal area or level as of a roof of a house. The floors were studded with crystals and were resorted to by the people in the summer. The roof was sloping and the porjecting eaves (valabhika) had water channels made of moonstones at the end of the ridges (valabhika-candramani-pranali). The valabhika was also a small projecting balcony, sometimes called vadabhi, and was studded with emeralds (garutmata-valabhika) or made of ivory (danta-vadabhi). Niryuhas are generally explained as dove-cotes. Besides these there were particular projections in the houses at certain heights on which rows of swans or pigeons were carved. These were called hamsa-palis and kapota-palis. The walls of the mansions were whitewashed on the outside, but decorated within with pictures and precious stones. The floorings had 24. 25. sudhaliptatalam harmya saudham syat kuttimam ca tat | samasirsasca datavyo yathasobham yathaci | (Ibid., p. 87, vs. 12) (Ibid., p. 160, vs. 18) 26. The Candrasalas were apartments in the terraces, white and decorated with paintings. Because of the paintings these apartments were also called Citra- salas. They were reserved for the newly weds. Even now in Rajasthan there are similar apartments and they are called Cittasaris.

A PICTURE OF THE TIMES 81 crystals, sapphires, rubies, corals and the like studded in gold and other minerals. On the grounds were built pavilions (vedika) with raised seats (vitanka). These also were decorated with precious stones. The courtyards (prangana) and arches (torana) 27 were necessary features of the buildings. Stair-cases (sopana) and windows (vatayana) were made of crystals. Slightly different from the windows were the 'gavaksas', windows with fretwork in stone. In the royal palaces were special audience halls (asthana) and pleasure pavilion (krida-mandapa) both inside and outside. 'Sayanagara" was the bedroom and 'Apavaraka' was another name for a room. The parks (udyanas) had, of course, their natural beauty, but they were planned and well-provided with artificial lakes, tanks, lotus-ponds and hillocks. The secanakutis were kept cool with water sprinkled from leather bags; and they were resorted to by the pleasure loving couples to escape the heat of the summer. The most interesting feature was the yantra-dhara-grha which was an ideal resort during the summer season. It is an old feature of the cities, for we find the mention and description of the same in the Kadamabari,28 the Yasastilaka-campu, 29 the Tilakamanjari³0 and many other works. The construction of the yantra-dhara-grha was very elaborate, and therefore the kings alone could afford them.31 At the very outset of this work we read that the king was seated in the dhara-grha. But the description of the city includes another yantra-dhara-grha, which was accessible to the people of the city. The purpose of the dhara-grha was to seek refuge from the heat of the summer days. It was made of dark coloured stones to deflect the heat and keep the inside cool. Various pavilions and balconies were provided within the house. Pillars, pillartops and carved dolls on them (pattasalabhanjika) adorned the chambers. On the top of the pillars (stambhasirsaka) were small statues which looked as if they bore the burden of the whole roof. They were called bharaputrakas, and their reflections in the pillars multiplied their number. The dhara-grha was kept very cool as if it was made of camphor, snow or bits of the moon. 27. The torana is beautifully described in Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva (p. 89, vs. 36-38) parsvayorubhayoresam phalakadvayamucchritam | uparyupari samksiptamardhacandradvayakrti || | 11 anane dve yatha casmin slistairuyairmahadharaih | tayoruparisandhau ca tarakakrtimandalam || tat toranamiti proktam yacca tena pariskrtam | suvarnatoranam ca syanmanitoranameva ca || manitoranamapyetat kriyate puspakadibhih | 28. Pp. 438-39 29. Book III, p. 522-532. 30. Pp. 178-190. prakrtajanarthametanna vidheyam yogyametadavanibhujam | managalyanam sadanam divyamidam tustipustikaram | Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva, p. 179 vs. 118. 31. N

In the courtyards of the dhara-grha were tanks and lotus ponds in which at some places mechanical tortoises swam up and down, at another, mechanical families of cranes were cheated by the swimming mechanical fishes, and at other places the mechanical crocodiles frightened the dolls fashioned as mermaids. Inside the dhara-grha were many mechanical contrivances. Dolls of various sizes and shapes danced and played music. Mechanical cranes, bees and cakravakas moved up and down like living ones. Water flowed from all possible slits and holes--the eyes of the winged crocodiles, the mouth of the pea-hen, hair, palms, nails and breasts of dolls, mouths of monkeys climbing up an artificial tree, from the ground underneath, walls, ceiling, lotuses, pillars and pillartops. On the whole it created the illusion of pleasant rainy days within, when as a matter of fact the sun blazed fiercely without. It was natural therefore that the whole populace was bewitched by the splendour of such a yantra-dhara-grha: idam nanakara kulabhavanamadyam ratipate- nivasascitranamanukaranamekam jalamucam | payahpataigrasme ravikaraparitapasamanam na kesamatyartham bhavati nayananandajananam || | The picture of the city bespeaks the prosperity and grandeur of the times. With the increase of material prosperity the lives of the people flowed easy and smooth. There was ample time, opportunity and means to indulge in every interest and temptation that life offered. If this text were taken to portray a faithful picture of its times, it offers us a glimpse of the pattern of the social life in general. The picture, it must be confessed, is hardly flattering or respectable. The mosaic of the population was made up of Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas, Kayasthas and men of other professions. But the way of life of the individuals described in the text indicates nothing high or noble about them. It may be wrong to infer that the whole social fabric was corrupt, that the air was thick with fraud, greed and slickness, and that society was suffocated with the stench of lust; but it cannot be denied that at least partially it was so, and even the rich and the respectable descended to low and vulgar levels. The social arrangement demanded that the populace should be distributed among different localities according to their varnas and professions. The locality of the Brahmanas made the entire city look as if it was a world of Brahmanas; for at places rows of Srotriyas moved up and down engaged continuously in various rituals. At some places the recitations of the khilas and nigamas could be heard. 32. Samarangana-sutradhara of Bhojadeva, p 182, vs. 148. See Notes.

and at others discourses were held on the srutis, smrtis, vyakaranasastra, puranas and itihasas. The Brahmanas were rich and learned. The mention of the riches of the Brahmanas reminds us of the verse: year: Slofagagrenfsar: gurinifuga: pratah pranganasimni mantharacalabalangrilaksarunah | duraddadimabijasankitadhiyah karsanti kelisukah yadvidvadbhavanesu bhojanrpatestattyagali layitam || 133 The Brahmanas followed the path laid down by the sruti and the smrti ( srutismrtyuditena vartmana samcaramanasya etc.). Boys were invested with the sacred thread and initiated into studies at a young age. By the time he was sixteen he completed his studies. ( kramena cayamupanito vidhivadadhita sakalavedango adhitasakalasastrah ) and entered life with full zest. The bulk of the Brahmanas may have followed their ancestral occupation of study and rituals and received the titles of distinction; but all spheres of activity were open to them. We hear of the Brahmana Visnudatta, who became a king, and Madhava who returned from Simhaladvipa after doing good business. The kings, princes, feudatories and courtiers came from the Ksatriyas. They were rich, charitable, pleasure-loving and valorous. The position of the king has already been described above." The third important class was that of the Vaisyas, the merchants. The sons of merchants were well up in all arts and sciences, like gaja-sastra, asva-vidya, vanik-kala, dyuta-rahasya, vaisikopani- sad, citra, patracchedya and pusta-kala. For them it was not obligatory to join their father's business. (Cf. Ratnadatta's attitude). The city's wealth and splendour depended upon the wealth of the merchants, and therefore they were an important class of people. Besides these three classes, the Kayasthas are mentioned. According to the Varna-dharma they form an intermediate caste. But prior to the epoch depicted in this work, the Kayasthas were in the administrative services of the kings. They formed a class of government officers. In the Narmamala Ksemendra devotes a whole chapter to the Kayasthas, where the first verse eulogises them rather sarcastically thus: yenedam svecchaya sarva mayaya mohitam jagat | sa jayatyajitah srimankayasthah paramesvarah || i The references to Kayasthas are generally full of scorn and deroga- 33. Mammata, Kavyaprakasa, X, cf. the following description: na paksapatena vadami satyam usassu yasyam bhavananaganebhyah | sambharjanibhih paratah kriyante fayfadsrafmalfadifa || Padmagupta, Navasahasankacarita, I. 27.

tory, and they are described as dishonest, corrupt and disreputable administrators. It seems that actresses personated female parts on the stage, and they were experts in their art. There are references to fortune. tellers (sakunika) and persons proficient in magic (indrajalika vidyi) and mesmerism (mohana-vidya). Of men following other professions we hear of the oilman (tailika) doing his hereditary work and prospering in it. The medicine man (vaidya), agriculturist (karsakajana), smith (lohakara), weaver (tantuvaya), keeper of the gambling house (sabhika). The slaughter house (suna) is mentioned, along with the barbar (napita) and the hunter (vyadha). The picture of the countryside is roseate and rich. Agricultural prosperity is evident in the descriptions of the emerald-like green rice-fields protected by the kalamagopikas, the barely fields and forests of sugarcane. The return of the cattle in the evenings from the rich pasture lands was inferred from the tinkling of the bells. Wood for fuel was available in plenty from the forests. Outside the cities, in these simple surrounding dwelt the villagers (Karvatas) and along the seacoasts the sea-faring men (Velakulas). The forests were full of the Sabaras. An interesting ethnological description of the Sabaras is given thus at one place. They were well-built and dark in colour. They had snub noses, high cheekbones, pointed chins and small ears. Their eyes were red-shot and wide open and their eyebrows were knitted. With curly hair, with sparsely growing beards, with peacocks' feathers tied to their hair, with bows and arrows in hand, blowing horns and marching in groups they frightened away not only the travellers but also the wild beasts. The Kiratas, the Barbaras and the Bhillas also had their residences (pallis) in the forests, which could be marked even from a distance during the mornings due to the sweet songs of the womenfolk while pounding barley and rice at their doors. These are the divisions of classes and professions. But the members of respectable classes referred to in the text are only the men about the town (nagaraka) who led easy-going and sophisticated lives, basking in luxury. Vatsyayana has devoted a whole chapter to the description of the Nagaraka's life and we have a contemporaneous literary record to the effect that it was a favourite pastime of such men to indulge in the science of Erotics day and night. For company, they had hangers-on like the Vitas, 34 Dhurtas, Dindikas and the Singas who were ever ready to help them in their 34. Padmagupta, Navasahasankacarita, I, 30.

amorous adventures. But the company most desired by them was that of the hetaira. In order to be worthy of their interests and accomplishments the hetaria also had to be educated. And gradually, as the respectable members of society took more and more interests in them their position and status improved considerably and they came to be regarded as the most advanced, cultured and welcome members of society.35 The Shringara-manjari-katha is concerned mainly with this important section of society. These women are to be distinguished on the one hand from the gay and beautiful ladies of the town, and on the other from the ordinary vesyas or prostitutes, the common women. About the former, we come to know, from stray references, only this that they were dressed and adorned in the fashions of the day; their hair was long and was braided or knotted and was always decorated with seasonal flowers. Tadanka, danta-patra and kundala were their ear-ornaments; be-jewelled necklaces and flower garlands adorned their necks; valaya, kankana and keyura were their armlets, and their feet constantly resounded with the tinkling of the nupuras. Fragrant sandal, camphor, kumkum and rodhra pollen were applied to their bosoms, and their palms and feet were painted with the alaktaka dye. Besides the accomplishment of music (sangita) or tauryatrika the triple harmony of singing, dancing and instrumental music we hear of no other accomplishment of theirs. This is because the whole work is devoted to the lives of courtesans. The ganika is enumerated along with the vesya, but there is a vast difference between the two. A few technical points may be noted here. The Kamasutra mentions nine types of common women, namely, kumbhadasi, paricarika, kulata, svairini, nati, silpakarika, prakasavinasta, rupajiva and the ganika.36 Bharata calls her bahya, 37 dhanika, sadharan, 38 and Rudrata samanya. 39 Bhoja also calls the common woman samanya, and further gives three divisions: ganika, rupajiva and valasini.40 The Shringara-manjari-katha uses the words vesya, 35. From this it is not proper to infer that other women in society were absolutely ignorant and unaccomplished as is done in the following remark of Dubois "The courtesans are the only women in India who enjoy the privilege of learning to read, to dance, to sing' (Hindu manners, customs and ceremonies, p. 586). kumbhadasi - paricarika - kulata- svairini-nati-silpakarika prakasa vinasta rupajiva, ganika ceti vesyavisesah (VI, 6, 54). 36. 37. Natyasastra, 22, 146 b. 38. Dasarupaka, II, 15 ff. 39. Srngaratilaka, I, 62, 65. 40. Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhojadeva, V, 113 a. bahya vesanganakrte | svanya sadharanastriti tadguna nayika tridha | samanyavanita vesya sa vittam paramicchati | ajivatastu ganika rupajiva vilasini |

vesavanita, vesavilasini, panyaramani, vesapramada, panyangana, darika, sadharani, ganika, vesayuvati-all of them referring to the ganika. The position of the courtesan in society was superior to the other common women because she was like the eraipa of Athens and the hetera of Greece,-the privileged woman in society who was the companion of kings and wealthy merchant-princes. 4 1 It is difficult to trace the historical origin of the institution of courtesans in India as is done with regard to the Erapi or the Geisha Guild.42 But it seems to have been gradually developed. As far back as the time of Kautilya the institution of courtesan was fairly established. The Arthasastra has a whole chapter dealing with the Superintendence of the ganikas. Ganika was not necessarily hereditary, 43 which reminds us of the Geisha guilds of Japan of the present day. The Arthasastra tells us that the profession of ganika was not necessarily hereditary, 44 and the ganikas were trained entertainers, holding highly paid posts in the king's court. They were also employed in the temples.45 A courtesan was not a free woman, but was under strict official control, ever liable to suffer penalty for breach of regulations. The registration and regulation of the ganikas that we read about in the Arthasastra was more for the safety of the state than for any other reason. And it was better than the Roman tradition where registration and the minor regulations such as the dyeing of hair and other disabilities were enforced for separat ing the ganikas for public reprobation and penalizing them for their profession.46 Bhoja describes the ganika as: kalacatuhsastivid . Hemacandra 41. Vide Fergusson, W. S., Hellenistic Athens, London, 1911, p. 71 ff; also Wodehouse, Greek Prostitution in Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X, p. 404 ff. 42. Wallace, Irving, The Geisha Guild, in 'Tricolour', Vol. III, September 1945, pp. 30, 31. 43. Book II, Chapter 27. 44. ganikadhyakso ganikanvayamaganikanvayam va rupayauvanasilpasampannam sahasrena ganikam karayeta | 45. Cf. Lavanyasundari (8 th tale). Sh ewas called arghya-vittika conveying the sense that her fortune was in offering arghya to gods and propitiating them by dancing. Penzer in his note on 'Sacred Prostitution' (Appendix IV, The Ocean of Story, Vol. I) has thoroughly treated this subject by pointing out its origin and comparing similar practices existent in Babylonia, Syria, Phoenicia, Canaan and West Africa. 46. Hogarth, D. G. 'Graeco-Roman Hierodouloi', Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VI, p. 671 f. 47. Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhojadeva, p. 498.

says: kalapragalbhyadhityabhyam ganayati kalayati ganika 48 Vatsyayana mentions the sixty-four anga-vidyas and says: abhirabhyuddita vesya silarupagunanvita | labhate ganikasabdam sthanam ca janasamsadi | pujita sa sada rajna ganavadabhisca samstuta | prarthaniya'bhigamya ca laksyabhuta ca jayate || So we know for certain that the ganika was respected for her knowledge of the different arts. Not only that but girls of respectable families and young men were sent to her to be instructed in some of the arts. Of the sixty four arts mentioned by Vatsyayana, music, painting, dancing, etc. are purely aesthetic. Visesakacchedyam, puspastaranam and the like for the purpose of increasing one's personal charms; Sayanaracanam, Bhusanayojanam are for knowing the part of service; prahelika, pratimala, durvacakayoga are entertaining games, while pustakavacana and kavya-samasya-purana and the like are purely intellectual pursuits. With all these personal charms and accomplishments it is not surprising that the ganika came to be regarded as a respectable and important member of the community. The description of our nayika, Srngaramanjari, is that of a perfect ganika of the first order. Her beauty was unparalled, her graces were befitting, her dresses and adornments were choice and befitting, and her language and behaviour were polished and decorous. In dancing and music she excelled others and her intelectual development made her a worthy companion of the most learned. Vatsyayana speaks of the mastery of the ganika in sixty-four arts; but Sengaramanjari was adept in ubhayacatuh sastijnana, both kinds of sixty-four arts. The first group we have already referred to; the other refers to the sixty-four samprayogika arts which Vatsyayana mentions in the second book of the Kamasutra. It indicates that Srngaramanjari was adept in the science of erotics. She was bold in questions and answers, eloquent in speech, wellread in treatises on different subjects and expert at understanding and composing poetry. Possessing unparalled beauty, knowledge and good fortune, she was the favourite of the king and it was not surprising that the Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Kayasthas all waited at her doors with gifts to offer. With all the wealth and power of the kingdom at her feet it was easy for her to live in great pomp and splendour.50 48. Kavyanusasana-Viveka, p. 418. 49. Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, I, 3, 16-20-21. 50. Cf. the description of Vasantasena's residence in Mrechakatika, pp. 99-106.

Her description reminds us of the influential French and English mistresses like Madame Du Barry, Nivon, Jane Shore and Nell Gwyn whose salons attracted powerful kings and statesmen of Europe of the day; and who practically ruled their countries. 51 But Srngaramanjari specially reminds us of Aspasia who was loved by great men like Alcibiades and Socrates, and who finally married Pericles. She was, according to Plato, an accomplished rhetorician and the real composer of the funeral oration of Pericles, and according to Plutarch, was courted by many statesmen and philosophers of Greece. 52 In the Shringara-manjari-katha we do not read of the State control of the houses of ganikas. But nevertheless every ganika's household was controlled by a strict officer in the form of the 'mother' or the Kuttani. She was an eye-sore to the men who came to the courtesan and they swore: ramena tataka mithya hata krsnena putana | fazqqizhai arar fagar fa a gazAT || It was but natural that the ganikas were sometimes sincerely loved and that they came to cherish sincere love for one man or another. But their social position was such that little scope was given to them to cherish true love. Some of them understood their position all right and strictly followed the rules laid down for them. They punctiliously kept watch over their own interests and lived successfully. Some of them practised fraud, for, greed never left them. They were punished by the king or the individuals who suffered at their hands. While some of the ganikas valued their respectable positions and did not stoop to cheating or inviting punishment, nor did they value wealth more than virtue or fleeting fancy more than constant love. But with regard to these last mentioned, the 'mothers' were always worried. As guardians of the ganikas it was their duty to see that the courtesans never deviated from their paths. It was heart-breaking for them to see that the energy spent in training the courtesans was all lost by her resolute will to be faithful to one person. In the Dasakumaracarita we read we read how Kamamanjari's mother complains to the sage in the following words: "Sir, this daughter of mine would make it appear that I am to blame, but 51. Wallace, op. cit, mentions a Geisha, Ohana San, who though living then had become a legendary person. She was the mistress of the late Prince Saionji, last of the Elder Statesman and intimate advisor of Hirohoto. At the time of the Versailles Peace Conference, Prince Saionji took her to Paris, and Woodrow Wilson, charmed by her, presented her with a pearl necklace. There was considerable embarrassment later when President Wilson learnt the young lady's status. Till 1945 (when the article was written) she was living and was then the abbess of a nunnery near Tokyo. 52. Dickinson, G. L., The Greek View of Life, pp. 182-184.

indeed, I have done my duty, and have carefully prepared her for the profession for which from birth she was intended. From the earliest childhood I have bestowed the greatest care upon her, doing everything in my power to promote her health and beauty. As soon as she was old enough I had her carefully instructed in the arts of dancing etc.. I did many other things to promote her success and to secure for her liberal renumeration; yet after all the time, trouble and money which I have spent upon her, just when I was beginning to reap the fruit of my labours, the ungrateful girl has fallen in love with a stranger.¨ This then was the one thing that the 'mother' constantly dreaded the rise of sincere love in a courtesan. The fear was only natural, as faithfulness to one individual would spell ruin in her profession. A wise 'mother' had always to be on guard and instruct the courtesan about the dangers of the different temptations that her life offered. It was her duty as a courtesan not to forget her true profession. It is with such a purpose in view that in the present work the wise and experienced Visamasila gives instructions to the fair and fortunate Srngaramanjari. She enumerates the maxims that a courtesan has to follow to escape falling into the trap of a cheat or a rogue. The purport of her entire teaching is that a courtesan should be wise and discriminating and not get entangled in the bonds of affection. By doing so she fulfills her duties and obligations towards society in which she enjoys a high position. This class of courtesans constituted an important section of society which influenced a considerable number of people. Their 53. Desopadesa, p. 11, vs. 10. 54. Later rhetoricians have raised a controversy whether the srngara-loveinvolved in ganika's case is true or not. And when it is not true whether it should be called srngara or srngarabhasa. Bharata (23, 18-26) mentions three types of courtesans: madanatura (one craving company), rakta (attached) and virakta (one who is averse). Here rakta is the one of true love. Vatsyayana (in the sixth book, mentions two goals of her life, namely, natural love and artificial love, (VI, 1, 1, 2) and the former he calls ekacarini. (VI, 2, 1-2). In the Syngaratilaka, Rudrata states: (I, 64, 65) srnagarabhasa eva syadyadi ta ragavajitah | tasmattasamapi kvapi ramah syat || So he accepts her true love, without which hers will be a case of rasabhasa only; Bhoja does not discuss the point in his works, but the Shringara-manjari-katha has stories of true love, and one of the lessons that Visamasila teaches is that the courtesan should never be sincere in her love. Visvanatha after mentioning that a common woman shows only outward love for the sake of the money says in the end: kvapi satyanuraginim (Sahityadarpana, III, 71). In the recently published Srigaramanjari of Akbarshah the author criticizing the definition given by Bhanudatta in Rasamanjari : vittamatropadhikasakalapurusanuraga samanya | carries the controversy thus : tadasat | vittopadhikatvat tasyanuraga eva nasti | anyacca anuragastvaikatraitra | | bahapurusesa yo manassangah so'nuraga eva na bhavati kintu anuragabhasah | samanyapyaikatraivanuragini bahupurusasangamo vrttyarthah | (pp. 12-13)

houses afforded endless pleasures and amusement to rich citizens. But we also hear of a complement of other institutions, which afforded pleasure and entertainment like the glambing house (tinta), theatre (rangasala), pleasure houses (kridagara, kridabhavana) and temples (devalaya, devagrha, devayatana). The love for outdoor life took the citizens out to the parks (udyana), swimming (jalamajjana), hunting (mrgaya), playing balls (kanduka-krida), swinging (dolandolana) and dancing (nrtya, natya). Religious festivals were also enjoyed with gusto. We have reference to the yatra-mahotsava of Madana, the worship of the Sun of Vijayasaptami, the worship of the Goddesses Asapura and Vin dhyavasini, and the god Ganapati who helps to attin the desired objectives of life. Mahakalanatha who was presiding deity of Ujjayini, and was therefore worshipped with great fervour. There is an uncomplimentary reference to the pasupata sect (hinasativapasupata-pakhanda) which later on was followed by the Paramaras of Malwa.55 Among beliefs, we read only of the pigeon being considered unfortunate when it stays in the house. The units of currency mentioned are dramma and pala. Gold coins are usually mentioned as pieces of gold. From this short review of the times based on information contained in the Shringara-manjari-katha it can be said that during Bhoja's rule civilization in Malwa had risen to a magnificent pitch. Our appreciation of Bhoja for having portrayed a faithful picture of one of the most glorious periods of medieval Indian History is heightened when we take into consideration that he worked and stood for all that was glorious in Hindu Culture. 55. An inscription of the reign of Kumarapala, dated 1169 A.D. throws light on the distinguished Pasupata teacher Bhavabrhaspati. He left Varanasi and came to Dhara and the Paramara kings became his disciples. Vide, A collection of Prakrt and Sanskrit Inscriptions, published by the Bhavnagar Archaeological Department, p. 186; See also Ganguly, op. cit, p. 249. 56. We come across a similar belief in Somadeva's Yasastilakaccampu, see Handiqui, op. cit, p. 407.