Chapter 5 - The position of the Manasara in literature

THE TYPES OF BUILDINGS WITH A VIEW to ascertaining the position of the Manasara in relation to the non-architectural literature it will be necessary to discuss the points of similarity in detail. It is, however, practicable, in an article like this, to take into consideration only the architectural portions of works which deal with the subject specially. For the purpose of an elaborate treatment we propose to compare the Manasara with the Agni-Purana, the Garuda-Purana, the Matsya-Purana, the Bhavishya-Purana, the Brhat-samihta, the Kamikagama, and the Suprabhedagama. It has been pointed out at the outset that architecture comprises a variety of subjects, but it cannot be denied that the fundamental business of the architect is with buildings, residential, religious, and military. It appears to be a fashion among many peoples of the past, as of the present, to designate individual buildings by proper names, with or without a meaning.¹ It seems to have been a custom among the ancient Hindu architects to describe buildings under some such names. In the eight treatises we have proposed to compare in detail, we find buildings bearing proper names classified and described in the following way: I. In the Manasara the main buildings are described in some thirteen chapters.2 Their common features from bottom to top are given under storeys, varying from one to twelve. They are also classified under styles-Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida-chiefly in accordance with the shape of the topmost part³; under sizes-as Suddha, Compare, for instance, Whitchall, Guildhall, Mansion House, Cosy Corner, Gordon Castle, Benmore, Barnes Castle, Svastika, Vijaya, Vipulanka, Indrakanta, Chatur-mukha, Panchala, Dravida Kamala-Bhavana, Chitta-Visrama, etc. Chapters XVIII to XXX, see the summary of contents in the preceding section under XVIII. 2 3 For details of these styles, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Nagara. 4 Large, intermediate, and small. 186

isra, and Samkirna-in accordance with the materials of which they are built¹; under Jati, Chhanda, Vikalpa, and Abhasa in accordance with the various lengths of the cubit with which the buildings are measured²; under Sthanaka, Asana, and Sayana, which are otherwise called Samchita, Asamchita, and Apasamchita respectively³; and under shapes, Pumlinga (masculine), Strilinga (feminine) 4 and Napumsaka (neuter). The details of the ninety-eight types of buildings, described according to the number of storeys, are given below. The numerical figures on the left indicate the serial numbers, and those on the right refer to the lines or verses of the chapters. I. The eight kinds of single-storeyed buildings with their characteristic features, Chapter XIX- (1) Vaijayantika, with round spire (sirsha), pinnacle (sirah). and neck (girva) (line 166); (2) Bhoga has karna or cars (187); (3) Srivisala has the bhadra or front porch in it (168); (4) Svastibandha has octagonal finial (sirsha) (168); (5) Srikara has quadrangular sikhara or steeple (170); (6) Hastiprshtha has oval steeple (171); (7) Skandatara has hexagonal spire and neck (172); (8) Kesara has the front porches in the centre of the side-towers at the corners of the roof, and its nose, head, and neck are round or quadrangular (173-175).5 II. The eight kinds of two-storeyed buildings, Chapter XX (the general features are the same in all the eight kinds; the distinction lies in the different proportions given to the component parts from above the ground floor to the top)---- (9) Srikara (lines 94, 2-9); (10) Vijaya (94, 10-15); (II) Siddha (94, 16-18); (12) Paushtika (94, 19-25); (13) Antika (94, 25-27); (14) Adbhuta (94, 28-33); (15) Svastika (95, 34-41); and 1 (a) Suddha, or pure, made of one material (brick, iron or wood); (b) Misra, or mixed, made of two materials; (c) Samkirna, or amalgamated, made of three or more materials. M., XVIII, 139-142. * M., XIX, 2-5. 3 Referring respectively to height, breadth, and length, M., XIX 7-9, 10-11. The three latter sets also refer to the postures of the idols in case of temples, namely, erect, sitting, and recumbent. A Equiangular and rectangular respectively. But in case of temples, the former contains the male deities, while the latter may contain both female and male deities, M., XIX, 14-17. For the neuter class, see the Kamikagama below. 5 For further details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Ekabhumi. 187

(16) Pushkala (94, 42-43). The projection, the general description, and the carvings on the doors, when these buildings are used as temples, are given (44-93, 96-116).¹ III. The eight kinds of three-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXI (the general features and characteristic marks are similar to those of two-storeyed buildings)- (17) Srikanta (lines 2-11); (18) Asana (12-21); (19) Sukhalaya (22-30); (20) Kesara (31-32); (21) Kamalanga (33-38); (22) Brahmakanta (39-40); (23) Merukanta (41-49); and (24) Kailasa (50-52).¹ The general features, characteristic marks, and other details of the following kinds are similar to those of the two- and three-storeyed buildings-IV. The eight kinds of four-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXII- (25) Vishnukanta (lines 3-12); (26) Chaturmukha (13-24); (27) Sadasiva (25-33); (28) Rudrakanta (34-43); (29) Isvarakanta (44-46); (30) Manchakanta (47-57); (31) Vedikanta (58-59) ; and (32) Indrakanta (60-88).² V. The nine kinds of five-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIII. (33) Airavata (lines 3-12); (34) Bhutakanta (13-15); (35) Visvakanta (16-18); (36) Murtikanta (19-24); (37) Yamakanta (25-29); (38) Grihakanta (30-38); (39) Yajnakanta (33-40); (40) Brahmakanta; and (41-42) Mahakanta and Kalyana.2 VI. The thirteen kinds of six-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIV- (41) Padmakanta (lines 3-12); (42) Kantara (13-14); (43) Sundara (15); (44) Upakanta (16); (45) Kamala-aksha (17-18); (46) Ratnakanta (19); (47) Vipulanka (20); (48) Jyoti (sh) kanta (50); (49) Saroruha (51-52); (50) Vipulakrtika (53); (51) Svastikanta (53); (52) Nandyavarta (54); and (53) Ikshukanta (55).² VII. The eight kinds of seven-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXV- (54) Pundarika (lines 3-23); (55) Srikanta (24); (56) Sribhoga (25); (57) Dharana (26); (58) Panjara (27); (59) Asramagara (28); (60) Harmyakanta (29); and (61) Himakanta (30).2 1 For further details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under dvi-tala and tri-tala. For further details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under chatus-tala, pancha-tala, shat-tala, sapta-tala, ashta-tala, nava-tala, dasa-tala, and ekadasa-tala. 188

. The eight kinds of eight-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVI- (62) Bhukanta (lines 3-21); (63) Bhupakanta (22-28); (64) Svargakanta (29-34); (65) Mahakanta (35-39); (66) Janakanta (40); (67) Tapa(s)kanta (41-42); (68) Satyakanta (43-45); and (69) Devakanta (46-47).¹ IX. The seven kinds of nine-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVII- (70) Saurakanta (lines 5-9); (71) Raurava (10); (72) Chandita (11-12); (73) Bhushana (13-14); (74) Vivrta (20-22); (75) Supratikanta (23-26); and (76) Visvakanta (27-33).1 X. The six kinds of ten-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVIII- (77) Bhukanta (lines 6-8); (78) Chandrakanta (6-8)%; (79) Bhavanakanta (9-13); (80) Antarikshakanta (14-15); (81) Meghakanta (16-17); and (82) Abjakanta (18).1 XI. The six kinds of cleven-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIX- (83) Sambhukanta (lines 3-7); (84) Isakanta (8-9); (85) Chakrakanta (10-14); (86) Yamakanta (15-17); (87) Vajrakanta (18-24); and (88) Arkakanta (24-33).¹ XII. The ten kinds of twelve-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXX- (83) Panchala (lines 8-10); (90) Dravida (8-10)%; (91) Madhyakanta (11-14); (92) Kalingakanta (14-16); (93) Varata (Virata ?) (17-27); (94) Kerala (28-30); (95) Vamsakanta (31-32); (96) Magadhakanta (33-34): (97) Jana(ka)kanta (33-36); and (98) Sphurjaka (? Gurjaraka) (7, 37-84); description of the twelfth storey.2 2. Agni-Purana, Chapter XLII, verses 1-9 (general plan), 10-25 (plan with reference to the idol), Chapter 104, VV. 1-11, 22-34 (further general plan), 11-21 (names, classes, shapes, and description of forty-five kinds of temples). 1 For further details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under chatus-tala, pancha-tala, shat-tala, sapta-tala, ashta-tala, nava-tala, dasa-tala and ekadasa-tala. 2 These ten kinds are named, it should be noticed, after the historic places, well marked in the ancient geography of India, which cover the whole length and breadth of the continent. The topography of these places is described elsewhere (pp. 254-256). For the architectural details of these buildings, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under these ten terms. The description of the twelfth storey is given under dvadasa-tala.

Five divisions depending on five shapes (plans), each including nine kinds of temples (Chapter CIV, v. 11-13)-I. Vairaja-quadrangular (square)-includes (1) Meru, (2) Mandara, (3) Vimana, (4) Bhadra, (5) Sarvatobhadra, (6) Charuka (in the Kamikagama, XXXV, 87, 91: Ruchaka), (7) Nandika, (8) Nandi-varddhana, and (9) Srivatsa (Chapter CIV, vv. 14, 15). II. Pushpaka-rectangular-includes (10) Ba(Va)labhi, (11) Grharaja, (12) Salagrha or Salamandira, (13) Visala, (14) Sama, (15) Brahma-mandira, (16) Bhavana or Bhuvana, (17) Prabhava, and (18) Sivikavesma (Chapter CIV, vv. 16, 17). III. Kailasa-round-includes (19) Ba(va)laya, (20) Dundubhi, (21) Padma, (22) Maha-padmaka, (23) Varddhani, (24), Ushni, (25) Sankha, (26) Kalasa, and (27) Svavrksha (Chapter CIV, vv. 17-18). IV. Manika oval (vrttayata)-includes (28) Gaja, (29) Vrshabha, (30) Hamsa, (31) Garutmat, (32) Rkshanayaka, (33) Bhushana, (34) Bhudhara, (35) Srijaya, and (36) Prithivi-dhara (Chapter CIV, vv. 19-20). V. Trivishtapa-octagonal-includes (37) Vajra, (38) Chakra, (39) Svastika, (40) Vajra-svastika, (41) Chitra, (42) Svastika-khadga, (43) Gada, (44) Srikantha, and (45) Vijaya (Chapter CIV, vv. 20-21). 3. Garuda-Purana (Chapter XLVII) has exactly the same general plan (vv. 1-20, 32-47), five shapes, five classes (v. 21-23), and forty-five kinds of buildings (vv. 24-32), but the wording is not identical. The fourth class is read Malika (v. 21) in the general description, but the name 'Manika' (v. 30) is given later onI. Vairaja-square (vv. 21-22)--includes the same nine kinds, but (7) Nandika is read as Nandana, and (6) Charuka is correctly read as Ruchaka (vv. 24-25). II. Pushpaka--rectangular (vv. 22-23)-includes nine kinds where (10) Valabhi is correctly spelt, (13) Visala is read as Vimana, which is apparently a mistake in the Garuda-Purana, because (3) Vimana is a kind of building included in the square (I) Vairaja class. But the reading of class (II) seems better in the Garuda-Purana, which be quoted-(10) Valabhi, (11) Griharaja, (12) Salagriha, (13) Mandira, (14) Visala (text has Vimana), (15) Brahmamandira, (16) Bhavana, (17) Uttambha, and (18) Sibika-vesma (vv. 26-27). 190 may

. Kailasa-round (vv. 21-23)-has nine kinds, again perhaps with better readings-(19) Valaya, (20) Dundubhi, (21) Padma, (22) Mahapadma, (23) Mukuli (in place of Varddhani), (24) Ushnishi, (25) Sankha, (26) Kalasa, and (27) Guva-vrksha (vv. 28-29). IV. Manika-oval (vv. 30)-has nine kinds, of which (31), (32), and (33) are read as Garuda, Simha, and Bhumukha respectively (vv. 29-30). V. Trivishtapa-octagonal (vv. 21, 23)-has nine kinds, readings again seem better here-(37) Vajra, (38) Chakra, (39) Mushtika (preceded by Babhru, vv. 31), (40) Vakra, (41) Svastika, (42) Khadga, (43) Gada, (44) Srivrksha, and (45) Vijaya (vv. 31-32). 4. The Matsya-Purana, Chapter 269 The description of the general plan (verses 1-7) is followed by that of the special plan (vv. 8-20). The names (vv. 28-30), description of architectural details (vv. 31-46), measures (vv. 47-51), and division (vv. 53-54) of twenty types of buildings- (1) Meru has 100 cupolas (tringa), 16 storeys (bhumika), many variegated steeples (Sikhara), and is 50 cubits broad (vv. 28, 31, 53) ; (2) Mandara has 12 storeys, many steeples and faces, and is 45 cubits broad (vv. 28, 37, 47, 53); (3) Kailasa has nine storeys (many steeples and faces), and is 40 cubits broad (vv. 32, 47, 53); (4) Vimana-chchhanda has eight storeys, many steeples and faces (anana), and is 34 cubits broad (vv. 25, 32, 33, 47, 53); (5) Nandi-vardhana has seven storeys, and is 32 cubits broad (vv. 29, 33, 48, 53); (6) Nandana has seven storeys, and is furnished with vishana or horns, and is 30 cubits broad (vv. 29, 33, 48, 53); (7) Sarvatobhadra has five storeys, 16 corners with various shapes, is furnished with art galleries (chitrasala), and is 30 cubits broad (vv. 29, 34, 35, 48, 53) ; (8) Valabhi-chchhandaka has five storeys, many steeples and faces, and is 16 cubits broad (vv. 35, 50, 53); (9) Vrsha should resemble the height and length of the bull, be round and without corners, should have five cupolas, two storeys, and should be 4 cubits broad at the central hall (vv. 30, 36, 44, 45, 53); (10) Simha resembles the lion and is 16 cubits broad, is adorned with the famous chandra- sala (top rooms, gable windows), and by the width of the front neck six storeys high (vv. 29, 36, 40, 49, 53) ; (11) Gaja resembles the elephant, and is 16 cubits broad, and has many chandrasalas or top 191

rooms (vv. 36, 41, 49, 53) ; (12) Kumbha resembles the water-jar, has nine storeys, five cupolas (andas), and is 16 cubits broad (vv. 37, 49, 53); (13) Samudraka has 16 sides around, 2 chandrasalas (top rooms) at the two sides, two storeys (vv. 38, 53); (14) Padma has three storeys, 16 corners, a variegated steeple, and is 20 cubits broad (vv. 30, 39, 49, 53); (15) Garuda has the bird-design around, seven storeys, three top rooms, and is 8 cubits broad, and there should be 86 (?) compartments (bhumika, lit. storeys, v. 42) all round the outside (vv. 41, 43, 51). There is a similar Garuda building with ten storeys, and a second Padmaka-building with two storeys more (? 12 storeys, v. 43) ; (16) Hamsa, is 10 cubits broad (vv. 36, 51); (17) Vartula is 20 cubits broad (vv. 29 49, 53). No special description is given of the remaining: (18) Chaturasra (four-cornered, vv. 28, 53); (19) Ashtasra (eight-cornered, v. 29, 53); (20) Shodasasra (sixteen-cornered, vv. 29, 53).¹ Similar types of buildings are described almost in the same way in both the Bhavishya-Purana and the Brihat-samhita. 5. The Bhavishya-Purana, Book I, Chapter CXXX, names (vv. 23-26), description of the architectural details and measures (vv. 27-35) of the twenty kinds of buildings (same as in the Brihatsamhita, see below)- (1) Meru, 39 cubits high and 32 cubits broad, has 12 storeys, various windows (kuhara), and four gateways (v. 27). (2) Mandara, 30 cubits broad, and has ten storeys (v. 28). (3) Kailasa, 28 cubits broad, has steeples and eight storeys (v. 28). The description of the following is clearer in the Brihat-samhita, quoted below; the names may be given here-- (4) Vimana, with latticed windows (v. 29). (5) Nandana (v. 29). (6) Samudga (v. 30), Samudra (v. 24) as in the Brihat-samhita (LVI, 28, 5). (7) Padma (v. 30). (8) Garuda (v. 31). (9) Nandi-vardhana (v. 28, Namdi, v. 31). (10) Kunjara (v 32). (11) Griharaja (v. 32), Brihat-samhita (LVI, 25) has Guharaja. 1 Compare the three divisions of these buildings according to sizes. 192

INDIA AND ABROAD (12) Vrisha (v. 33). (13) Hamsa (v. 33). (14) Ghata (v. 33). (15) Sarvatobhadra (v. 34). (16) Simha (v. 35). TYPES OF BUILDING (17) Vrtta (as in the Brhat-samhita, LVI, 29, 49); but here (v. 33) it reads Vrisha-like (12), which is apparently a mistake (see v. 30). No special description is given of the remaining- (18) Chatushkona, four-cornered (v. 25), Matsya-Purana (Chapter CCLXIX, vv. 28, 53) has Chaturasra; and Brhat-samhita (VI, 28) has Chaturasra. (19) Ashtasra, octangular (v. 25). (20) Shodasasra, sixteen-cornered (v. 25). Varahamihira seems to have taken these from an earlier Purana and improved them in the Brhat-samhita. 6. The Brihat-samhita, LVI, 1-19 The religious merits acquired by building temples (vv. 1-2); suitable sites-in the garden, wood, banks of rivers (seas), tanks (vv. 3 8); ground (v. 9); general plan (v. 10); situation of doors (v. 10); comparative measures of length, breadth, and height (v. 11), of the adytum (garbha, v. 12), of the doors and their different parts (vv. 12-14); carvings on the door (v. 15); comparative measures of the idol, pedestal, and door (v. 16); the heights of storeys (v. 29-30). This is followed by a classification (vv. 17--19) and an account. of the architectural details (vv. 20-28) of the same twenty kinds of temples (prasada) as are given in the Matsya-Purana and the BhavishyaPurana. The names of these buildings are given below, details being almost the same as in the Puranas- (1) Meru (v. 20). (2) Mandara (v. 21). (3) Kailasa (v. 21). (4) Vimana-(chchhanda) (vv. 17-22). (5) Nandana (v. 22). (6) Samudga (v. 23). (7) Padma (v. 23). (8) Garuda (v. 24). (9) Nandivardhana (v. 24). (10) Kunjara (v. 25). 193 m ន

POSITION OF MANASARA IN LITERATURE (11) Guharaja (v. 25). (12) Vrsha (v. 26). (13) Hamsa (v. 26). (14) Ghata (v. 26). (15) Sarvatobhadra (v. 27). (16) Simha (v. 28). (17) Vrtta (vv. 18-28). (18) Chatush-kona (vv. 18-28). (19) Ashtasra (v.: 18-28). (20) Shodasasra (vv. 18-28). 7. The Kamikagama, Patala LV.. The four classes-HINDU ARCHITECTURE IN Jati (verse 128), Chhanda (v. 129), Vikalpa (v. 130), and Abhasa (v. 130). Patala XLVFurther classifications- (1) Samchita, Apasamchita, and Upasamchita (v. 6). (2) Nagara (vv. 6, 12, 13), Dravida (vv. 6, 14, 15), and Vesara (vv. 7, 16, 18). (3) Jati (vv. 7, 19), Chhanda (vv. 7-20), and Vikalpa (vv. 7-20). (4) Suddha (vv. 7, 21), Misra (vv. 7, 22), and Samkirna (vv. 7, 22). (5) Pum-linga, or masculine, also called Samchita (vv. 8, 9), Strilinga, or feminine (vv. 9, 10), and Napumisaka, or neuter (vv. 11). This class (5) does not refer (like the Manasara) to the sexes of the deities. Here they appear more like residential buildings; their characteristic features are determined by architectural details. The distinguishing marks of the divisions in the other four classes (1 to 4) are similar to those of the Manasara noticed above. In Patala XXXV, Salas, in almost the sense of Prasada, are divided into five classes: Sarvatobhadra (vv. 87, 88), Vardhamana (vv. 87, 88), Svastika (vv. 87, 89), Nandyavarta (vv. 87, 90), and Charuka (vv. 87, 91). Their technical names 2_ (1) Sindhuka (XLV, vv. 23-28), (2) Sampurna (vv. 29-30), (3) Merukuta (v. 31), (4) Kshema (vv. 32-34), (5) Siva (vv. 35-38), (6) 1 This Patala refers to the description of a single building and its component parts. So also does the Patala XLV (see under Malika), it is named Malika-(lakshana) and does not mean anything but Prasada: cf. Prasada-vyasa-dirghochcha prokta prasada-malika (11, 4). 2 For further details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia under these terms and Malika. 194

armya (vv. 39-40), (7) Saumya (v. 40), (8) Visala (v. 41), (9) Sarvakalyana (vv. 43-49), (10) Vijaya (v. 50), (11) Bhadra (v. 51), (12) Rangamukha (v. 52), (13) Alpa (vv. 53-54), (14) Kona (vv. 55-58), (15) Geya (vv. 58 a-59), (16) Sara (v. 60), (17) Pushkara (vv. 61, 63), (18) Adbhuta (v. 61 a), (19) Samkirna (62), and (20) Danda (v. 64). 8. The Suprabhedagama, Patala XXXI (named Prasada)- Three styles of temples-Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara (vv. 38-39). Different kinds of temples-(1) Kailasa, (2) Mandara, (3) Meru, (4) Himavat, (5) Nishadha (also called Nilaparvata, Mahendra), (6) Nalinaka, (7) Pralinaka, (8) Nandyavarta, (9) Srivarta (? Sripada), and (10) Parvata (vv. 40-52). Mandapas are first divided into four classes- Deva-mandapa, Snapana (bath)-mandapa, Vrisha (bull)-, Nandimandapa, and Nrtta (music)-mandapa (vv. 96-97, 98-99); and further classified under epithets, Nandavrtta, Sriyavrtta, Virasana, Jayabhadra, Nandyavarta, Manibhadra, and Visala (vv. 110-104). The attention of readers is invited to the lists of the buildings described in the cight works under observation. The list in the Manasara contains in 12 classes (storeys) 98 types of buildings; the Agni-Purana has in five classes (or divisions) 45 types; the Garuda-Purana also has in the same five classes (or divisions) the same 45 types; the Matsya-Purana has in three divisions 20 types; the Bhavishya-Purana has left out the broader divisions but contains the twenty types; the Brihat-samhita in the very same way contains the twenty types; the Kamikagama has in three divisions (of various kinds) twenty types; and the Suprabhedagama has left out all the minor divisions, but preserves the most important one, namely, the three styles (Nagara, Vesara, Dravida), which comprise ten types of buildings. The various broader divisions, such as Suddha, Samchita, Sthanaka, Jati, Pumlinga, etc., we have seen in the Manasara, are repeated in the same terms and same sense as in the Agamas. The most important division into the styles-the Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida-is also preserved intact in the latter works. These are purely architectural divisions, and they are not taken into consideration in the nonarchitectural treatises like the Puranas and the Brihat-samhita. Even the broadest division into storeys, under which the Manasara describes the buildings in 12 or 13 chapters, has lost its prominence in the latter works. 195

Thus the Manasara has the largest number of the types, namely, 98. The Agni-Purana and the Garuda-Purana have 45 types each. The Matsya-Purana, the Bhavishya-Purana, the Brihat-samhita, and the Kamikagama have twenty types each. The Spurabhedagama has the smallest number of types, namely ten. The technical names of these types of buildings are, as we have seen above, common in many cases. We have also seen that in some instances the architectural details are identical. The lists of the AgniPurana and the Garuda-Purana on the one hand, and the Matsya-Purana the Bhavishya-Purana, and the Brihat-samhita on the other, are strikingly similar. Of the works containing the lists of twenty types, the Brhat-samhita has the best description. In respect of brevity, explicitness, and precision, the Suprabhedagama, which contains the smallest number of types, surpasses all; and it happens that the smaller the types the better the description. The common names of the types, the identity of their details, and the similarity in the description may not be accidental. The grades in the linguistic style and in the explicitness and precision of the description do not seem unconnected; while the variations in the number of types of buildings treated in these works also may not be meaningless. Before hazarding an opinion, it will be better to compare some of the other important points of similarity between the Manasara and the architectural portions of other works. Amongst others, the three crucial features in architecture, at least so far as these ancient records are concerned, seem to be the measurement, the orders or columns, and the styles. Similarities in these respects are hardly accidental and may be ascribed to a common origin. 196

(A) The linear measurement is divided into six kinds¹: (1) Mana, (2) Pramana, (3) Parimana, (4) Lamba-mana, (5) Unmana, and (6) Upamana (M., LV, 3-9). References to these measurements are met with, also, in nonarchitectural treatises, like the Matsya-Purana (Chapter CCLVIII, verse 16) the Suprobhedagama (Patala XXXIV, verse, 35), as well as in the Bimbamana (British Museum, MSS. 658, 5292, verse 9). (B) The primary measurement (adimana) refers to comparative measurements and is divided into nine kinds. The height of an image is determined by comparing it with the (1) breadth of the main temple, (2) height of the adytum, (3) length of the door, (4) measurement of the basement, (5) cubit, (6) tala, (7) angula, (8) height of the worshipper, and (9) height of the riding animal (M., LV, 10-15). Each of the measurements is again divided into nine kinds (M., LV, 22). Under (1), (2), (3), and (4), the proportions naturally vary on various occasions, but the general methods are similar in these treatises; compare for instances the Suprabhedagama (XXXI, vv. -15). The angula (finger-breadth) and the hasta (cubit), (7) and (5), measures are in fact of the same class. The finger-breadth, equivalent to inch, is perhaps the earliest unit of measurement 1 Measurement from the foot to the top of the head is called Mana (which is nothing but height); Pramana is the measurement of breadth; Parimana is the measurement of width or circumference (paritah); Lamba-mana is the measurement by the plumb-lines or the lines drawn perpendicularly through different parts of the body, the mana or the measurement of height being taken by the surface of the body; Unmana is the measurement of thickness (nimna) or diameter; Upamana is the measurement of interspace (antara), such as that between the two feet of an image. Parimana, unmana, and mana are also mentioned in the Sukra-niti (I, 310), but their meanings are not quite clear. 197

invented by human brain. Though not liable to being lost in the course of time, it has its own defects, namely, the finger of two persons is hardly of equal breadth and the finger of a person is liable to change owing to various natural causes. Apparently with a view to avoiding these defects, finger-breadth is ascertained by the measures of certain other objects, atom, car-dust, hair-cnd, nit, louse, and barley corn.1 The largest size of finger-breadth is stated to be equal to 8 barley corns, the intermediate 7 barley corns, and the smallest 6 barley corns. Again, for the same purpose, this standard measure is divided into three kinds-manamgula, matrangula, and dehalabdhangula. Of these, manangula, which is equal to 8 barley corns, is meant to be the unit proper. Matrangula is the measure taken by the middle finger of the master who makes an image (or a building), dehalabdhangula is the measure equal to one of the equal parts into which the whole height of a statute is divided for sculptural measurements.² This angula measure is practically the same in almost all the Indian works bearing upon measurement, for instance: 15 (1) Manasara (II, 40-45, 46 47, 48-52, 53-64, LXIV, 19-53, etc.). (2) Brihat-samhita (LVIII, 1-2). (3) Siddhanta-siromani, ed. Bapudeva (p. 52). (4) Raja-vallabha-Mandana, ed. Bharati (Introduction). (5) Brahmanda-Purana (Part I, section 2, Chapter VII). (6) Matsya-Purana (Chapter CCLVIII, verses 17-18). (7) Vastu-vidya, ed. Ganapati Sastri (I, 3 5 f). (8) Bimbamana (British Museum, MS. no. 558, 5292, verse 9 f). (9) Suprabhed agama (XX, 1-9, 10-16, 20-26, etc.). (10) Kautilya-Artha-sastra, ed. Shama Sastri (p. 106). Compare also: (11) Manu-samhita (VIII, 271). (12) Ramayana (VI, 20, 22). (13) Sata-patha-Brahmana (X, 2, 13, III, 5, 4, 5). (14) Aitareya-Brahmana (VIII, 5). 18 atoms 8 car-dusts 8 hair-ends 8 nits 8 lice = I car-dust. I hair-end. I nit. I louse. 1 barley corn. 8 barley corns = 1 angula. 3 For further details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia under Angula. 198

INDIA AND abroad (15) Chhandogya-Upanishad (V, 18, 1, etc). MEASUREMENTS (16) Sulva-Sutra of Baudhayana (J. R. A. S., 1912, pp. 231-233, notes 1, 2). I, : The tala-mana (under 6) is a sculptural measure. The length of face is taken as the unit of measurement.¹ But it seems more convenient to have the particular span, namely, the distance between the tips of the fully stretched thumb and middle finger, which is technically called tala, as the unit.2 It admits of many varieties ten-tala measures are mentioned in the Manasara,³ while the Bimbamana has reference to twelve kinds. Each of these ten or twelve varieties is again divided into three types, namely, uttama or large, madhyama or intermediate, and adhama or small. Thus an image is of the ten-(dasa) tala measure when its whole length is ten times the face. In the large type of the ten-tala system, however, the whole length is divided into 124 equal parts, which are proportionately distributed over the different parts of the body; in the intermediate type the whole length is divided into 120 equal parts; and in the small type into 116 equal parts. In the nine-(nava)tala system, the whole length would be nine times the face, in the eight- (ashta)-tala, cight times, and so forth. The principle of the tala measure is fundamentally the same in all the works dealing with the subject, although certain differences in matters of details are noticed, compare for instance : (1) Manasara (LX, 6-35; LVII, LIX, 14-64; 67-100%; LXVI, 2-78; LXV, 2-179). (2) Bimbamana (verses 17-72, 91-138, and Appendix X). (3) Suprabhedagama (XXXIV; 30-34 ; XXX, 31-40). (4) Brihat-samhita (LVIII, 4). (5) Amsumadbheda of Kasyapa (fol. 251, Eg. 3148, 3012). (6) Bramhanda-Purana (Part I, Anushamga-pada, VII, 97). (7) Matsya-Purana (Chapter CCLVIII, verse 19). The details of the tala measures from the following authorities are given by Mr. Rao³ : (8) Silpa-ratna. Matsya-Purana, Chap. CCLVIII, verse 19: Mukhamanena kartavya sarvavayava-kalpana. Amsumadbheda of Kasyapa, fol. 251. (MS. Egg., 3148, 3012). 3 One to ten tala (M., LX, 6-35, etc.). 4 One to twelve tala (Appendix). 5 Elements of Hindu Iconography, by T. A. Gopinath Rao, Appendix B, pp. 9-28. 199

POSITION OF MANASARA IN LITERATURE (9) Amsumad-bhedagama. (10) Ka(?ki)ranagama. (11) Vaikhanasagama. (12) Kamikagama. HINDU ARCHITECTURE IN Another exclusively sculptural measure is that mentioned under (8), (9), namely, the height of an image as compared with the height of the worshipper (yajamana), and the height of the riding animal (vahana) as compared with the height of the main idol. Each of these admits of nine varieties. The height of an image may be equal to the full height of its worshipper, and may extend up to his hair-limit on the forehead (sometimes it is stated to be the eye-line), nosc-tip, chin, arm-limit to the shoulder, breast, heart, navel, and sex organ. The height of the riding animal is in the same manner compared with the height of the main idol.1 Corresponding to the above-mentioned sculptural measures there are exclusively architectural measures also. The architectural ganya-mana,² or the comparative heights of the component members of a structure, correspond to the sculptural talamana, or the comparative heights of the component limbs of a statue. The ghana-mana, or the measurement by the exterior, and the aghana-mana, or the measurement by the interior of a structure, are also exclusively architectural.³ In another architectural measure the height of a structure is compared with its breadth. It admits of five proportions, technically called, Santika, Paushtika, Jayada, Sarva-kamika or Dhanada, and Adbhuta, the height being respectively equal to breadth, 14, 14, 11, and twice of the breadth.4 These latter items, highly technical and extremely minute in detail, are found in no other treatise under observation than the Manasara. Thus in respect of at least purely architectural and sculptural measurements the Manasara, of all these works, should occupy the first place. 1 Manasara, LV, 30-33, etc. 2 See the writer's Encyclopaedia; and compare the Manasara, XXVII, 36-40 ; XXIX, 35-38; XXXIII, 134-145, 216-217, 248; XLV, 86, 97-101; LIII, 29-34; XIII, 36-40, etc. 3 See the writer's Encyclopaedia, sub voce. A See the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Utsedha. When a large number of absolute measures are prescribed for the one and the same object, the right proportion is selected by the test for the six formulas technically called, aya, vyaya, riksha, yeni, vara, and tithi or amsa (see details in the writer's Encyclopaedia under Shad-varga). 200

ike the five Graco-Roman orders, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite, columns in ancient India also were divided into five main orders or classes. In the Manasara¹ they are called Brahma-kanta,2 Vishnu-kanta, Rudra-kanta, Siva-kanta, and Skanda-kanta. These divisions are based on the general shapes of columns. With respect to dimensions and ornaments the five orders are called Chitra-karna, Padma-kanta, Chitra-skambha, Palika-stambha, and Kumbhastambha. A sixth variety in the latter division is pilaster and not pillar proper, and is called Koshtha-stambha and Kudya-stambha.3 4 Among the Puranas, these details are very clear only in the MatsyaPurana. In this Purana, as well as in the Brihat-samhita, the five orders are called Ruchaka, Vajra, Dvi-vajia, Pralinaka, and Vrtta. Of the Agamas, the Suprabhedagama contains the essential details. The names of the five orders according to this Agama' are Sri-kara, Chandra-kanta, Saumukhya, Priya-darsana, and Subhankari; the last one is stated to be the Indian composite order, being a compound of Saumukhya and Priya-darsana, just as the Graco-Roman composite order is a compound of Corinthian and Ionic. Between the European and the Indian columns, however, there is obviously a striking point of difference. Of the Graco-Roman orders the five names have been left unchanged, while in India the names of the five orders have varied in various treatises referred to above. It is true, all the same, that the criteria of divisions are essentially the same in the Manasara, the Agamas, the Puranas, and the Brhatsamhita. We have also seen above that the Manasara contains two sets of names of the five orders, one set referring like the Agamas, the Puranas, and the Brihat-samhita, to the shapes of the columns, or more precisely the shafts, while the other refers mostly to the capitals. The works, other than the Vastu-sastras, as represented Chapter XV, 20-23, 31, 39, 40, 73, 204. 2 Also mentioned in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, p. 252, 253, Epigraphia Indica, XII, pp. 212, 216 verse 151. 3 Manasara, XV, 84. 4 Matsya-Purana, Chap. CCLX, vv. 1-6. 5 Brihat-samhita, LIII, 27-30, also J. R. A. S. (N. S.), VI, p. 285, notes 1, 2. 7 6 See, for instance, the Kamikagama, Patala XXXV, 24-26, 161, LV, 203, etc. Suprabhedagama, Patala XXXI, 65-67. 8 See references given above, and for further details consult the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Stambha. 201

by the Manasara, have not kept this distinction clear. What we can reasonably infer from this as regards the mutual relation of these treatises will be further elucidated by a consideration of the component parts of the column. The question of variation of the names of the five orders in the Indian works can perhaps be explained. While in Europe the origin of the names of the five orders is traced to historical geography,¹ in India the names were based on the shapes of columns. And as the Indians are comparatively religious and poetical, rather than historical in temperament and imagination, they chose mythological and poetical names. according to the spirit of the times when these various works were composed. Thus in the Manasara we see the orders bearing the names of mythological deities, Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Siva, and Skanda ; as well as called Chitra-karna (variegated ears), Padma-kanta (graceful like lotus), Chitra-skambha (of variegated shaft), Palika-stambha (edged like a measuring pot), and Kumbha-stambha (of jug-shaped capital) ; while, in the Agama, they bear highly poetical names: Sri-kara (beautifying), Chandra-kanta (graceful like the moon), Saumukhya (of very charming face), Priya-darsana (sight-pleasing), Subhankari (auspicious). In the Puranas and the Brhat-samhita they are called Ruchaka (beautiful, pleasing), Vajra (club, hence lasting), Dvi-vajra (doubly lasting), Pralinaka (firmly attached, hence a pilaster), and Frtta (round, hence solid and dignified). With regard to the names and the functions of the component parts of the column, the variation is a little less inarked; but these subservient parts, called mouldings and common to all orders, vary in number. Thus in the Manasara, which of almost all the treatises deals separately and exhaustively with the pedestal, the base, and the entablature, mention is made, in connexion with the pillar, of five mouldings, apparently of the shaft, namely, bodhika, musti-bandha, phalaka, tatika, and ghata. The Suprabhedagama describes two sets of 1 Doric is derived from the species of columns first seen in the cities of Doria (Vitruvius, IV, 1). That species of which the Ionians (inhabitants of Ionia) were the inventors has received the appellation of Ionic (ibid). Callimachus constructed columns after the model of the tomb in the country about Corinth, hence this species is called Corinthian (ibid). The other two orders, Tuscan and Composite, are of Italian or Roman origin. The Tuscan order has reference to the country of Tuscany, formerly called Etruria, in Italy (Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture, article 178). 2 Manasara, XLVII, 16-18. 202

INDIA AND abroad FIVE ORDERS seven mouldings,¹ one set referring to the column of the main building and the other to that of the pavilion-danda, mandi, kantha, kumbha, phalaka, vira-kantha, and potika; and bodhika, uttara, vajana, murdhika tula jayanti, and tala. These increasing number of mouldings reached the significant number of eight in the Matsya-Purana, the Brihat-samhita, and the Kirana-tantra, and bear the very same cight names, to wit, vahana, ghata, padma, uttaroshtha, bahulya, bhara (or hara), tula, and upatula. 3 The significance of the number eight referred to above lies in the fact that the component parts of the Graco-Roman orders also are cight in number, and like the five orders themselves, their names are always the same ever since their introduction, though most of them have been given more than one name. They are called: (1) the ovolo, echinus, or quarter round; (2) the talon, ogee, or reversed cyma; (3) the cyma, cyma-recta, or cyma-tium ; (4) the torus; (5) the scotia or trochilos; (6) the cavetto, mouth, or hollow; (7) the astragal; and (8) the fillet, listel, or annulet. The Manasara refers to five mouldings; the Suprabhedagama describes seven; and the Matsya-Purana, the Brhat-samhita, and Kiranatantra each makes mention of eight mouldings. But if the very large number of mouldings, described in the Manasara in connexion with the pedestal, the base, and the entablature, be also taken into account, the Manasara will certainly exceed all other treatises under notice. Thus in the Manasara we can detect the following mouldings 5 (1) abja, ambuja, padma or saroruha (cyma); (2) antara, 1 Suprabhedagama, Patala XXXI, 56-60, 107-108. 2 Matsya-Purana, Chap. CCLV, 1-6 f, Brhat-samhita, LIII, 29 30, Kiranatantra, J. R. A. S. (N. S.), VI, 285, notes 1, 2. 3 Sec figures 867-874 and articles 2532, Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture, and Glossary of Architectural Terms, plate XXXIV. 4 See the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Upapitha, Adhishthana and Prastara. 5 There are mouldings which bear a large number of names or synonymns, c.g. : (i) Kapota, prastara, mancha, prachchhadana, gopana, vitana, balabhi, and mattavarana. (ii) Prati-prastara, prati-vajana, anvanta, avasana, vidhana and vidhanaka. (iii) Prati-rupa, dalakara, vijana, vajana, kshepana, vetra, patta, uttara, pattika, kampa, trika, manda, and antarita. (iv) Tula-danda, jayanti and phalaka. (v) Kapota, vakra-hasta, lupa, gopanaka and chandra. (vi) Samgraha, mushti-bandha, maddala, uddhrta-hasta, valabhi and dharana. (vii) Nataka, anta, mrnalika, vallika, chitranga and kulikamghrika. (viii) Uttara, vajana, adhara, adheya, sayana, uddhrta, murdhaka, mahatauli and svavamsaka 203

antarita, antarala or antarika (fillet); (3) anghri; (4) amsu; (5) argala; (6) adhara; (7) alinga; (8) asana; (9) bhadra; (10) bodhika; (11) dala; (12) dhara-(kumbha) ; (13) gala, griva, kantha or kandhara (dado) ; (14) ghata; (15) gopana-(ka) ; (16) hara (bead); (17) janman (plinth); (18) kapota; (19) kampa, kampana (fillet); (20) karna; (21) kumbha ; (22) kumuda (torus or astragal); (23) kendra; (24) kshepana; (25) mushti-bandha; (26) mula; (27) mrnala or mrnalika; (28) nataka; (29) nasi; (30) nimna (drip) (31) patta or pattika (fillet); (32) prati or pratika; (33) prati-vakra; (34) prati-vajana; (35) prati-bandha ; (36) pratima; (37) paduka; (38) prastara; (39) phalaka; (40) ratna, compounded with kampa, patta, and vapra; (41) tatika; (42) tunga ; uttara (fillet); (44) upana (plinth); (45) vapra or vapraka; (46) valabha or valabhi; and (47) vajana (fillet). There are a number of compound mouldings also, such as kampakarna, karna-padma, kshudra-kampa, kshudra-padma, kshepanambuja, mahambuja, padma-kampa, ratna-kampa, ratnapatta, ratna-vapra, vajrapatta, etc. Again, of all these treatises, only the Manasara and the Agamas refer to certain highly technical and purely architectural matters. Thus in the Manasara we find the measurements and other details of 64 varieties of bases divided into nineteen classes,' called (1) pada-bandha, (2) uraga-bandha, (3) prati-krama, (4) kumuda-bandha, (5) padma-kesara, (6) pushpa-pushkala, (7) sri-bandha, (8) mancha-bandha, (9) ren-bandha, (10) padma-bandha, (11) kumbha-bandha, (12) vaprabandha, (13) vajra-bandha, (14) sri-bhoga, (15) ratna-bandha, (16) patta-bandha, (17) kukshi-bandha, (18) kampa-bandha, and (19) srikanta. In the Suprabhedagama only four classes of bases are mentioned, namely, padma-bandha, charu-bandha, pada-bandha, and prati-krama. The Kamikagama has only the general description of the base. 3 In the Manasara sixteen types of pedestals are described in detail under three classes, 4 namely, vedi-bhadra, prati-bhadra, and manchabhadra. ¹ Manasara, XIV, 11-387. See details in the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Adhisthana. 2 Suprabhedagama, XXXI, 17 f. 3 Kamikagama, XXXV, 22, 23, 114, 116, 122, LV, 202. 4 Manasara, XIII, 37-127. See details in the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Upapitha. 204

nly scanty information of the pedestal is found in the Kamikagama,¹ the Suprabhedagama, 2 and a Tamil version of the Mayamata.³ As regards the entablature, various mouldings and their measurements are described under eight classes in the Manasara.ª The Kamikagama, the Suprabhedagama, and the Vastuvidya have only briefly referred to the general description of the entablature. The comparative measurements of the column proper and the pedestal, the base, and the entablature, are also given in more detail in the Manasara than in the Agamas and some of the architectural treatises.8 Thus in respect of the names of columns, the number of their subservient parts called mouldings, and also the base, the pedestal and the entablature, as well as their comparative measurements, the Manasara will always occupy the first place among all the treatises under observation. 1 Patala XXXV, 115, 122. 2 Patala XXXI, 12. 3 4 Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, Ram Raz, pp. 23, 26. Chapter XVI, 22-149. See details in the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Prastara. XXXV, 27-29, LIV, 1-4, 7-8, 9-46, 47. 6 XXXI, 68-71, 72-74. 7 Ed. Ganapati Sastri, IX, 23, 26. 8 See details in the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Stambha, Upapitha, Adhisthana and Prastara. 205

THE THREE STYLES The style is also a technical and purely architectural subject. Thus it is not dealt with in the Puranas, not to speak of the epics or other poetical works where, as shown above, casual references to architecture and sculpture are met with. In some of the epigraphical documents and the Brihat-samhita mention of the styles is occasionally made. The Agamas contain a little more detail, while in the Manasara the subject is exhaustively treated. The Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida are the three broad styles distinguished in the Manasara.¹ They are applied to both architecture and sculpture.³ With reference to the construction of cars or chariots a fourth style is mentioned. This is called Randhra, which seems to be a corrupt form of Andhra. In an epigraphical record,5 Kalinga is mentioned as a distinct style of architecture. But if the identification of Vesara with Telugu or Tri-Kalinga be accepted, the Kalinga and the Andhra would be the two branches of the Vesara style. In the case of twelve-storeyed buildings, which are the most magnificent and imposing edifices as described, twelve special types, not necessarily the styles, of residential dwellings are also mentioned in the Manasara. All these names are geographical, implying the twelve provinces into which the then India was divided architecturally, if not also politically. And these types are distinctly based on geographical divisions, in exactly the same way as the three styles, the Nagara, Vesara and Dravida, as also the two branches of the 1 Manasara, XVIII, 92-104. The Nagara style is distinguished by its quadrangular shape, the Vesara by its octagonal or hexagonal shape, and the Dravida by its round shape. For details, see pp. 258-259 and the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Nagara. ² Manasara, LIII, 53-54; XXI, 72-73; XXVI, 76; XLIII, 124-125, etc. 8 Manasara, LII, 78, 100; LIII, 46-47, etc. 4 Manasara, XLIII, 124-125. 5 In the record itself, it is, however, stated that the Nagara, Vesara, Dravida, and Kalinga are four types, not styles, of buildings. (An inscription on the capital of a pillar in the Amritesvara temple at Holal, Government of Madras G. O). no. 1260, August, 1915, Progress Report of the Assistant Superintendent for Epigraphy, Southern Circle, 1914-15, p. go.) 6 Panchala, Dravida, Madhyakanta, Kalinga, Va(Vi)rata, Kerala, Vamsaka, Magadha, Janaka and Sphu(Gur)jaka (Manasara, XXX, 5-7). We have seen in the previous section ninety-eight kinds of mansions are described in the Manasara. In the above-mentioned Holal inscription a reference is made to sixty-four kinds of mansions. 206

esara, the Kalinga and Andhra, are based. The Graco-Roman orders, on which the European styles of architecture are mainly based, are also but geographical names.1 In the Kamikagama, as well as in the Suprabhedagama, frequent references to the three broad styles, the Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida, are made.2 The distinguishing features of these styles are practically exactly the same in all the three works, namely, the Manasara, the Kamikagama, and the Suprabhedagama.3 The Andhra and the Kalinga branches of the Vesara style are not mentioned in the Agamas. But we have seen that the Kamikagama, like the Matsya-Purana, the BhavishyaPurana, and the Brihat-samhita, describes twenty kinds of mansions, while the Suprabhedagama has reference to ten kinds. These varieties of buildings, as also the sixty-four kinds mentioned in the Holal inscription, and the ninety-eight kinds described in the Manasara, do not, however, represent the styles which fall only under three broad divisions, namely, the Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida. In the Brihat-samhita,4 clear mention is made only of the Dravida style in regard to the measurement of the face, although the other styles may be said to have been implied. It is stated that according to one's own angula (finger's breadth) the face (of an image) should be twelve angulas (nine inches) broad and long ; but as stated by the architect Nagnajit the face should be twelve angulas long and fourteen angulas broad in the Dravida style. Obviously, therefore, the former measurement refers to other existing styles or those which are not specified here. In regard to the styles also, therefore, the Manasara must be undoubtedly given the first place amongst all these works which for the purpose of the present item of comparison comprise practically the Agamas. In the light of all these facts-merely to deal with the question in its aspects as they concern the Manasara-it seems to me impossible to resist the following conclusion. There appears to have been a relation of indebtedness between the Manasara and the other works, both architectural and non-architectural. Except in a few instances 1 See p. 202 and footnote 7. 2 Kamikagama, LXV, 6-7, 12-18, etc., Suprabhedagama, XXXI, 37-39, etc. 3 For details, see the writer's Encyclopaedia, under Nagara. 4 Chapter LVIII, 4. 207

noted above, it is, however, difficult to state definitely that the Manasara is the debtor or creditor to this or that work in respect of this or that matter. Most of the difficulties, it is needless to observe, hinge upon the chronology, which is the irritating point in the Sanskrit literature. If the chronology of the works discussed above were definitely known, it would have been easier to assume that the works carlier than the Manasara had been known to its author and those later than the Manasara had been influenced by it. Except in cases of support by archaeological records, epigraphical or non-epigraphical, the dates assigned to Sanskrit works are mostly but provisional. I have discussed elsewhere the available materials and the reasons which have induced me provisionally to place the Manasara somewhere in the fifth to seventh century of the Christian cra. In view of the essential points of comparison and the accepted chronology of the works which have been critically studied by scholars, I should say that the Brihat-samhita, and the later Agamic and Pauranic works in respect of architectural and sculptural matters, as well as most of the avowedly architectural texts, are debtors to the Manasara ; while it is a debtor itself in respect of the same matters to the Vedic and the carly Epic works, as also to the early polytechnical treatises (like the Kautiliya-Artha-sastra and the Kamandakiya), and to the avowedly architectural works of the thirty-two authorities mentioned in the Manasara, which might have existed till its own time. Besides, it cannot but have been based on the actual observation and measurement of extant architectural and sculptural objects; in this matter lies the special importance of the Manasara. An objection may be raised here. It is possible that those works which are stated above to have been debtors to the Manasara might have been influenced directly by those which are asserted to have been the creditors to the Manasara. Such an objection, however, can be easily disposed of. The Manasara, in whichever period of history it is finally placed, has become a standard work on architecture and sculpture, because we have seen, firstly, it is the largest of its kind; secondly, its treatment of the subjects is most exhaustive; and, thirdly, in it the subject-matter has been scientifically classified and systematized. When there is a standard work existing, it is natural and highly probable that those who treat the subject rather casually or less exhaustively, should draw upon it instead of going to the original sources, except in some special instances. For the ordinary 208

meanings or synonyms of a word we generally consult a standard dictionary, rather than attempt to trace the history, phonology, morphology, and semasiology of the word. An analogical instance may perhaps make the point clearer. Panini's grammar makes mention of some nineteen pre-existing grammatical works, and it has been placed by later scholars somewhere in the fourth or third century before Christ. Like the works on rhetoric and prosody, grammars cannot be prepared without consulting the existing literature, because the sole business of these works is to generalize certain regulating features of literature. The methods of the pioneers of law books, as well as the grammar, the Alamkarasastra, and the Silpa-sastra, must have been inductive. Panini, as he acknowledges generously, has been indebted to his predecessors; it is also clear from his work that he himself has consulted the preceding Vedic and post-Vedic literature. It is true that grammars have been prepared after Panini also. But when Panini's grammar reached the status of a standard work, his rules and regulations were naturally followed in the later literature. The later grammarians also must have been influenced by Panini. In the field of grammar and literature Panini's grammar is, therefore, the regulating and controlling standard work. In the same way, and more clearly and significantly, it seems to me, the Manasara occupies a unique position in literature, both architectural and non-architectural. 200 n