A Summary of the Manasara

CHAPTER I THE TABLE OF CONTENTS (Samgraha) THE FIRST VERSE is an invocation to Brahma, the Creator of the Universe. In the second verse it is stated that the science of architecture (Vastu-sastra) had come down from Siva, Brahma and Vishnu, through Indra, Brihaspati, Narada, and all other sages, to the seer (rishi) Manasara who systematized it. After this genesis, titles of the chapters are given in order. The colophon of the last chapter, named Nayanonmilana, in all the complete manuscripts gives the number of the chapter as 71. The manuscripts called I, the codex archetypus of my text, has made up the number 71 by repeating the chapter Strimana-madhyamadasatala; in one place it is numbered 66 and in the second 67. The only explanation of this number 71 for the last chapter is to suppose that the copyists of all complete and independent manuscripts were equally careless in numbering the chapters. This supposition is corroborated by the fact that the contents of the work do not show that any chapter is missing. The last verse of the first chapter states the reason why the book is named Manasara, and explains the importance and authority of the work. It is called Manasara after a sage of that name. And as an authoritative work on art and complete in all respects, it has been accepted, it is stated, by the best among the leading artists. CHAPTER II THE SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT (Manopakarana-vidhana) The first part of this chapter gives a mythical genealogy of the artists. From the four faces of Brahma, the Creator of the Universe, originated, in order, the heavenly architect Visvakarman, Maya, Tvashtar, and Manu. Their four sons are called respectively Sthapati, 1 This summary has developed out of a Dissertation, which was accepted by the University of Leiden for the Ph. D. degree. 97 g

Sutragrahin, Vardhaki, and Takshaka. These four evidently represent the progenitors of the four classes of terrestrial artists. The Sthapati is highest in rank; he is the master-builder. The Sutragrahin is the guru of Vardhaki and Takshaka; while the Vardhaki is instructor of the Takshaka. The Sthapati must be well-versed in all sciences (Sastras). He must know the Vedas. He must have the qualifications of a supreme director (acharya). The Sutragrahin also should know the Vedas and the Sastras. He must be an expert draftsman (rekhajna). The Vardhaki too should have a general knowledge of the Vedas. But the object of his special study is painting (chitra-karman). The Takshaka must be an expert in his own work; i.e. carpentry. The second part of this chapter deals with the system of measurement: The paramanu or atom is the smallest unit of measurement. 8 paramanus 8 rathadhulis 8 balagras 8 likshas 8 yukas 8 yavas I rathadhuli (lit. car-dust). 1 balagra (lit. hair's end). I liksha (lit. a nit). 1 yuka (lit. a louse). I yava (lit. a barley corn). I angula (lit. finger's breadth). Three kinds of angulas are distinguished, the largest of which is made of 8 yavas, the intermediate one of 7 yavas, and the smallest one of 6 yavas. 12 angulas 2 vilastis or 1 24 angulas ) 25 angulas 26 " 27 " 4 hastas I vitasti (span). I kishku-hasta (small cubit). 1 prajapatya-hasta. I dhanurmushti-hasta. I dhanuragraha-hasta. I dhanus (bow) or danda (rod). I rajju (string). 8 dandas Directions are given with regard to the use of the four different kinds of cubits (hasta) enumerated above. Conveyances (yana) and couches (sayana) are said to measured in the cubit of 24 angulas, vimana in the cubit of 25 angulas, buildings (vastu) in general in the cubit of 26 angulas, and villages, etc., in the cubit of 27 angulas. The cubit of angulas may, however, also be used in measuring all these objects. 98 24

n the concluding portion of this chapter directions are given for the preparation of the yard-stick (hasta), the rod (danda), and the measuring-string (rajju). The former two objects should be made of the wood of certain trees, which are enumerated. In the same manner certain fibres are to be used as materials for the rope. The presiding deity of the yard-stick and the rod is Vishnu, and that of the measuring-rope Vasuki, the king of serpents. CHAPTERS III, IV, V THE CLASSIFICATION OF VASTU (Vahtu-prakarana) EXAMINATION OF SOIL (Bhu-pariksha)-SELECTION OF SITE (Bhumi-samgraha) The first part of the third chapter defines vastu (dwelling or habitation) and divides it into four classes. The place where men and gods reside is called vastu. This includes the ground (dhara), the building (harmya), the conveyance (yana), and the couch (paryanka). Of these, the ground is the principal one, for nothing can be built without the ground as a support. The building (harmya) includes prasada, mandapa, sabha, sala, prapa and ranga. The conveyance (yana) includes syandana, sibika and ratha. The couch (paryanka) includes panjara, manchali, mancha, kakashta, phalakasana and balaparyanka. The second part of the third chapter, as well as the fourth and fifth chapters, deal with the same subject, namely, the site on which a village, town, fort, palace, temple, or house, is to be built. The soil is examined with regard to its contour, colour, odour, features (rupa), taste, and touch. The level of the ground, as well as the characteristic vegetation of the site, are also minutely examined. If a plot of land is found to be satisfactory on all or most of these points, it should be selected for a village, town, fort, or house, as the case may be. But even after this selection it would be wise to test the ground in some other ways. A square hole of one cubit deep should be dug on the selected site and be filled with water. After twenty-four hours the chief architect should mark the condition of the water in the hole. If all the water be dried up by this time, the earth must be very bad. But if, on the other hand, there remains some water in the hole, the selected plot of land would be fit for any building purposes. 99

Another final test is this: a similar hole is dug on the plot and filled up with the earth taken out of it. If this earth fills up the hole exactly, the land is fair; if this earth be not quite enough to fill up the hole the ground must be very bad, but if this earth overfills the hole, the soil must be very good for any building purposes. The import of both tests seems to be that in the former case porous soil is avoided, while in the latter case loose soil is said to be unfit for the construction of a building. After this final selection the ground should be ploughed over. The concluding part of the fifth chapter gives a minute description of the oxen and the plough to be used in ploughing the selected site. CHAPTER VI THE GNOMON (Sanku-sthapaua-vidhana) The object of this chapter is to lay down rules on the principles of dialling and for ascertaining the cardinal points by means of a gnomon. The gnomon is made of the wood of certain trees. It may be 24, 18, or 12 angulas in length, and the width at the base should be respectively 6, 5, and 4 angulas. It tapers from the bottom towards the top. For the purpose of ascertaining the cardinal points, a gnomon of 12, 18, or 24 angulas is erected from the centre of a watered place (salila-sthala) and a circle is described with the bottom of the gnomon as its centre and with a radius twice its length. Two points are marked where the shadow (of the gnomon) after and before noon meets the circumference of the circle. The line joining these two points is the east-west line. From each of these cast and west points a circle is drawn with their distance as radius. The two intersecting points, which are called the head and tail of the fish (timi), are the north and the south points. The intermediate regions are found in the same way, through the fish formed between the points of the determined quarters. As regards the principles of dialling, each of the twelve months is divided into three parts of ten days cach and the increase and decrease of shadow (avachchhaya)¹ are calculated for these several parts of the different months. 1 Cf. Vitruvius, Book IX, Chap. VIII, '. the principles of dialling and the increase and decrease of the days in the different months' (translated by Gwilt). 100

hy the subject of the present chapter is important for architecture is evident from the rules regarding the orientation of buildings. Here it is said that a building should preferably face the east or the northcast, but that it should never be made to face the south-east, as this is considered inauspicious. The chapter closes with a passing reference to the khata-sanku, which appears to denote wooden stakes posted in different parts of the foundations made for constructing buildings thereon. CHAPTER VII THE SITE-PLAN (Pada-vinyasa) When a site is selected for constructing a village, town, or building thereon the ground is divided into different numbers of squares. Thirty-two kinds of such schemes are distinguished by as many different designations, according to the number of squares into which the whole area is partitioned out. The whole scheme has been arranged in such a manner that in each case the number of partitions represent the square of the serial number. The eighth plot, for instance, which is called chandita, comprises a division into sixty-four squares, while by the ninth plot, which bears the technical name of paramasayika, the ground is divided into eighty-one squares. Each of these squares is assigned to its presiding deity. Some deities, however, are lords of more than one square. The lord of the central square is always Brahma. Charagi, Vidarika, Putana, and Rakshasi are the presiding deities of the four corners. A detailed description of all the squares of the eighth and the ninth plans is given in the text. Then the forty-four deities, who are enumerated in connexion with the paramasayika scheme, are described in the form of as many dhyanas. The portion is of some iconographical interest. Finally, the presiding deity of the site (vastu-purusha), who is described as hump-backed and of crooked shape, is said to occupy the habitated area (vastu) in such a manner that his limbs cover the several squares or groups of squares, which, as set forth in the former part of the chapter, are assigned to and named after various deities. As he is supposed to lie down with his face turned downwards, his head being in the central square on the east side (assigned to Surya), his right and left hands must be in the partitions of Agni (S.E.) and Isana (N. E.) respectively, and his right and left feet on those of Nairrta (S. W.) IOI

and Vayu (N. W.) respectively. The middle part of his body occupies the central portion of the plot, which, as we saw, is assigned to Brahma. CHAPTER VIII THE OFFERINGS (Balikarma-vidhana) Different kinds of offerings (bali) are described for the various deitic enumerated in the preceding chapter, who are supposed to preside over the different partitions of the paramasayika or manduka (site, plan). These offerings consist of milk in its various forms, butter, rice and sesame, parched grain (laja), honey and sweetmeat (modaka, offered to Sugriva), incense and lamps, flowers and fruits. Blood is offered to Asura, dried meat to Mriga, dried fish to Roga (discase)and sca-fish to Bhrngaraja. The four demonesses, namely, Rakshasis Putana, Vidari, and Charagi, also receive their share, the first-mentioned evil spirit in the shape of meat of goats mixed with blood. In the bringing of these offerings the master-builder (Sthapati) takes a leading part. CHAPTER IN THE VILLAGE (Gramalakshana-vidhana) According to the Manasara, there is not much difference between a village, a town, and a fort. All are fortified places intended for the residence of people. A town is the extension of a village. A fort is in many cases nothing more than a fortified town, with this difference, that a fort is principally meant for purposes of defence, while a village or a town is mainly intended for habitation. A detailed description of the plan of villages, towns, and forts, and the arrangement of the various buildings which they contain is given in the text. Villages are divided according to their shapes into eight classes, called dandaka, sarvato-bhadra, nandyavarta, padmaka, svastika, prastara, karmuka, and chatur-mukha. Each village is surrounded by a wall made of brick or stone; beyond this wall there is a ditch broad and deep enough to cause serious obstruction in the event of an attack on the village. There are generally four main gates at the middle of the four sides, and as many at the 102

GROUND LEVEL PLAN SECTION 10 Scale of PLATE XXVIII(a) FRONT ELEVATION. BATHING GHAT FOR TANKS, PAL OR SEN PERIOD. NOTE The design for this Ghat is based on the extant remains of Tank Ghats found in the Districts of Dacca and Bogra o Pal and Sen pariods 10 20 Fost BATHING GHAT FOR TANKS Page 102

PLAN. BATHING GHAT FOR RIVER PAL OR SEN PERIOD 1 0 10 15' 20 SCALE OF TH FEET 0 1 2 3 5 6 SCALE OF ● FEET FOR DETAIL NOTE. This design is based on the extant remains of old River Ghats found in Bengal. 000 SECTION. Bathing ghat FOR. RIVER DETAIL OF THE FACADE Page 103

four corners. Inside the wall there is a large street running all round the village. Besides, there are two other large streets, each of which connects two opposite main gates. They intersect each other at the centre of the village, where a temple or a hall is generally built for the meeting of the villagers. The village is thus divided into four main blocks, each of which is again subdivided into many blocks by streets which are always straight and run from one end to the other of a main block. The two main streets crossing at the centre have houses and footpaths on one side of the street. The ground-floor of these houses on the main streets consists of shops. The street, which runs round the village, has also houses and footpaths only on one side. These houses are mainly public buildings, such as schools, libraries, guest-houses, ctc. All other streets generally have residential buildings on both sides. The houses, high or low, are always uniform in make. Drains (jaladvara, lit. water-passage) follow the slope of the ground. Tanks and ponds are dug in all the inhabited parts, and located where they can conveniently be reached by a large number of inhabitants. The temples of public worship, as well as the public commons, gardens, and parks are similarly located. People of the same caste or profession are generally housed in the same quarter. The partition of the quarters among the various sects cannot be said to be quite impartial. The best quarters are generally reserved for the Brahmans and the architects. Such partiality to the artists is not met elsewhere in Sanskrit literature. The quarters of the Buddhists and the Jains are described in a few lines. The habitations of the Chandalas, as well as the places for cremation, are located outside the village wall, in the north-west in particular. The temples of fearful deities, such as Chamunda, are also placed outside the wall. CHAPTER X TOWNS AND FORTS (Nagara-vidhana) As stated above, a town is a large village. According to the Manasara, it appears that the dimensions of the smallest town-unit arc 100*200 dandas; the largest town-unit is 7,200 * 14,400 dandas. A town may be situated from east to west or from north to south according to the position it occupies. There should be one to twelve large streets in a town. It should be built near a river or a mountain, and should have facilities for trade and commerce with the foreigners 103

(dvipantara-vartin). Like a village, it should have walls, ditches and gates, drains, parks, commons, shops, exchanges, temples, guesthouses, colleges, etc. For purposes of military defence, the towns are generally well fortified. Towns are divided into eight classes: rajadhani-nagara, kevala-nagara, pura, nagari, kheta, kharvata, kubjaka, and pattana. The distinction between them is slight, the general description given above being applicable to all. But it may be noted that the city called pattana is a big commercial port. It is situated on the banks of the sea or a river, and is always engaged in exchange and commerce with foreigners who deal specially in jewels, silk clothes, perfumes, etc., imported from other countrics (dvipantara). Forts are first divided into cight classes, called sibira, vahini-mukha, sthaniya, dronaka, samviddha or vardhaka, kolaka, nigama, and skandhavara. There is a further division of these forts according to their position. They are known as mountain fort (giri-durga), forest fort (vana-durga), water fort (jala-durga), chariot fort (ratha-durga), divine fort (devadurga), marsh fort (panka-durga), and mixed fort (misra-durga). The mountain fort is subdivided into three classes, according as it is built on the top of the mountain, in the valley, or on the mountain slope. All these forts are surrounded with strong walls and ditches. The wall is made of brick, stone, and similar materials. It is at least 12 cubits in height and its thickness at the base is at least 6 cubits. It is provided with watch-towers. CHAPTER XI THE DIMENSIONS OF BUILDINGS OF VARIOUS STOREYS (Bhumilamba-vidhana) The name of this chapter is Bhumilamba, which literally means. the height of the storey. The Kamikagama (patala 50, verse 1) defines this name, Bhumilamba, thus: "Chatur amsadi-samsthanam bhumilambam iti smrtam.' The chapters on the subject, in both the works, Manasara and Kamikagama, deal with the measurement of length, breadth, and height of buildings of one to twelve storeys. The various shapes of buildings are mentioned in the opening lines of the chapter. They may be square, rectangular, round, octagonal, or oval. Buildings of all kinds, such as the vimana or temple, the harmya or palace, the gopura or gate-house, the sala or storeyed 104

mansion, the mandapa or pavilion, and the vesman (residential houses generally) should have one of these five shapes. Buildings are again divided into four classes-jati, chhanda, vikalpa or samkalpa, and abhasa-which are frequently referred to in the subsequent chapters. These four classes seem to have different characteristics in different cases. The proportion between height and width is expressed by five technical names, santika, paushtika, parshnika (sometimes called jayada), adbhuta, and sarvakamika. When the height of a building or idol is equal to its width, it is called santika; the paushtika height is 1 times the width; the parshnika or jayada height is 1 of the width; the adbhuta height is twice the width; and the sarvakamika height is 13 of the width. This proportion of height and width is not, however, strictly followed all through. There is a slight variation in some cases. But the proportions given above are the most common. The measurement of length, breadth, and height is invariably divided into three types: large, intermediate, and small. The santika and the paushtika heights are prescribed for the large type of measurement, the parshnika or jayada for the intermediate type, and the adbhuta and the sarvakamika for the small type. Five series of length and five scries of breadth are prescribed here for each of the several classes of buildings of one to twelve storeys. But in some subsequent chapters as many as nine alternatives of length and breadth are prescribed for one and the same object. The five series of breadth in the small type of one-storeyed buildings are 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 units, and the five series of length are 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 units. In the intermediate type the five series of breadth arc 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13 units, and the five series of length 6, 8, 10 12 and 14 units. In the large type, the five series of breadth arc 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 units, and the five lengths are 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 units. All the classes of buildings of one to twelve storeys are in this way measured separately. The dimensions of the twelve-storeyed building in its three types are given briefly.1 In the small type they are 35, 1 The description of these dimensions is much clearer in the Kamikagama (patala 50). According to this work, the width of a twelve-storeyed building is 70 cubits and the height 100 cubits. It expressly states (sloka 33) that it is never desirable that buildings should be larger than 77 cubits in height and 70 cubits in width. 105

37, 39, 41, 43 units, in the intermediate type 36, 38, 40, 42, 44 units, and in the large type 37, 39, 41, 43, 45 units. These are the fifteen kinds of vipula, and the height should be as before. These are the measurements in the jati class of buildings. Threefourths, half, and one-fourth of these are prescribed for the chhanda, the vikalpa, and the abhasa classes respectively. The concluding part of this chapter prescribes the number of storcys allowed in edifices according to the social status of their occupants. In the first instance reference is made to the various classes of kings,¹ of whom the one highest in rank, namely, the chakravartin or universal monarch, is said to inhabit a palace of five to twelve storeys. The residence of the heir-apparent (yuvaraja), as well as those belonging to the chief feudatories (samanta-pramukha), should have one to three storeys. CHAPTER XII THE FOUNDATION (Garbhavinyasa-vidhana) The foundation is classified under three heads, namely, for buildings, for villages, etc., and for tanks, etc. The last-named foundation is meant for a cistern, well or tank (vapi-kupa-lataka), cic. The depth of the excavation (garbha-bhajana) in case of a village, a town, or a fort (grama, nagara, pura, pattana, kharvata, koshtha, kola, etc.) is stated to be of five kinds, and varies in accordance with the size of the construction. Similarly, for a building or a well suitable depth of the excavation is prescribed. The foundation of buildings is further divided into two classes as it may belong to temples or to human dwellings. Of temples, those of Vishnu and Brahma are dealt with, and the others are said to be like these. For human dwellings there are four classes of foundations according to the caste of the occupier, Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, or Sudra. In the laying of a foundation, ritualistic prescriptions play a prominent part, the actual process apparently being the same in all cases. 1 C. below, Chapter XLI. In the present passage only six out of the nine classes are mentioned, the mandalesa, pattadhara and parshnika having been omitted. 106

he depth of the excavation is equal to the height of the basement. The four corners and sides, built of brick or stone, are equal. The depth of the excavation (lit. foundation-cave) should be as high as the basement of the building; the four sides (lit. corners or walls), made of brick or stone, should be equal; from its bottom should be removed water (if there comes out any), and all (kinds of) carth should be deposited therein. The floor of the excavation should be consolidated with seven kinds of earth, namely, from rivers and mountains, from ant-hills, crab-holes, sca-shores, from tops of trees (hills), and from near a cow-shed (lit. from the foreparts of cows' hoofs). Upon this (carth deposit) should be (further) deposited the root of the (white) lotus at the central part (of the excavation), to the cast the root of the blue lotus, to the south the root of the water-lily, to the west saugandhi (grass), and to the north the kakali (gunja) plant. Upon this should be placed, in order, the following eight sorts of corn: sali (coru) should be placed to the north-cast and vrihi (grains) to the east, kodrava (Paspalum scorbiculatum) to the south-cast, kangu panic seed) to the south, mudga (phaseolus mungo) to the south-west, masha (bcan, phaseolus raditus) to the west, kulattha (dolichos uniflorous) to the north-west and tila (sesamum indicum) to the north. Upon this (finally depositing the other usual materials, c.g. concrete) the foundation should be raised up to the (upper) surface of the excavation. As regard the measurement and the shape, it (the foundation) should be in conformity with buildings of one to twelve storeys. The twelve varieties of dimensions (of breadth and length) should begin respectively with three and four parts (mairas, i.c. angulas) and end at twenty-five and twenty-six, the increment being by two. The depth of the excavation should be equal to its breadth and less by one-cighth or one-fifth, or similarly less by one-fourth. All these (measures) are stated to be (taken) in rods (of four cubits). The breadth of the excavation should be equal to the width of the (main) pillar of the building, or it may be made less by one-eighth, or be three-fourths of the breadth. The depth (of the excavation) should be made as aforesaid. The width of all the (four) walls should be one, two, or three parts out of the three parts into which the depth is divided. The depth of the excavation being divided into four parts one part is given to its base, two parts to its pillar and one part to the entablature. It (the excavation) should bc 107

shaped like a three-fold square pavilion at its entrance into the watery part (i.e. the bottom). The concluding lines of this chapter deal with the measurement of bricks, with which buildings of one to twelve storeys are preferably built, and also with the ceremonics in connexion with the laying of the foundation-stone (lit. first brick, prathameshtaka). The breadth of a brick may be from 7 to 29 or 30 angulas. The length is greater than the breadth by 1, 1, 1, or is twice the breadth. The thickness should be half of the breadth. CHAPTER XIII THE PEDESTAL (Upapitha-vidhana) The opening lines of the chapter describe the height of the pedestal as compared with the base. This height is said to be of nine kinds, which are worked out by nine proportions. Five of them are those expressed by the technical terms santika, paushtika, jayada, adbhuta and sarvakamika (3, 4, 1, 6, and 1/2). Ram Raz, on the authority of a Tamil manuscript, says that the height of the pedestal is to be reckoned from one-quarter to six times of the height of the base. 1 The next topic of this chapter refers to the measurement of the projections (nirgama) of pedestals. The height of the pedestal is divided into 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 equal parts; of these 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 are given to the projection. The nine kinds of projection are 1, 14, 11, 11, 2, 21, 21, 2, and 3 hastas. The projections may be 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 dandas. I 3 After this, the pedestals are divided into three classes known as vedibhadra, prati-bhadra, and mancha-bhadra. Each of these is subdivided into four types. The measures of the mouldings of each of these twelve kinds of pedestals are given in detail. The remaining portion of the chapter contains the names and mcasurement of the various mouldings which are to be employed in cach of the twelve kinds of pedestal. CHAPTER XIV THE BASE (Adhishthana-vidhana) The height of the bases is of twelve kinds, beginning at 30 angulas and ending at 4 hastas, he increment being by 6 angulas. These 108

twelve heights are used respectively in twelve different storeys, one above the other. The heights of the bases are said to be 4. hastas in the houses of the Brahmans, 3 hastas in those of the Kshatriyas (kings), 2 hastas in the houses of princes, 2 hastas in those of the Vaisyas, and 1 hasta in the houses of the Sudras. Some sixty-four bases are described under nineteen different types called pada-bandha, uraga-bandha, pratikrama, kumuda-bandha, padmakesara, pushpa-pushkala, sri-bandha, mancha-bandha, sreni-bandha, padmabandha, kumbha-bandha (or kalasa-bandha), vapra-bandha, vajra-bandha, sri-bhoga, ratna-bandha, patta-bandha, kukshi-bandha, kampa-bandha, and srikanta. Of each of the bases the mouldings and ornaments are described in detail. CHAPTER XV THE PILLAR (Stambha-lakshana-vidhana) The opening lines divide the subject-matter into five heads, namely, the measurement of pillars, their shapes, their ornaments and mouldings, the collection of wood for the purpose of making pillars, which may, however, be made of stone, and the ceremonial and process of erecting pillars. The height of a pillar is measured from above the base to below the uttara, or above the pedestal from he janman to the uttara. The height of a pillar, in other words, is measured from the plinth up to the lowest member of the entablature, so as to include the capital. In an important passage in the Kasyapa, quoted by Ram Raz, it is stated that the measurement may also be taken from the cimbia of the shaft, exclusive of the base. 9 The height of a pillar is twice, one-and-a-half times, or one-anda-quarter times that of its base, or the height of the pillar begins at 2 hastas and ends at 8 hastas, the increment being by 6 angulas or hasta. But according to Kasyapa, the height of the pillar may be three times of the base; or six or eight times that of the pedestal. The width (diameter) of a pillar may be 1, 1/2, 1, 1 or 10 of its height, or 1, or of the height if it be a pilaster (kudya-stambha). The width of the pilaster, according to the Manasara, is 3, 4, 5, or 6 matras (angulas), and twice, thrice, or four times of these should be the width of the kampa. The height of a pillar being divided into 12, 11, 10, 9 or 8 parts, the one of these parts may be the breadth of the pillar, and at the top it is diminished by one-fourth. 109

The column admits of different shapes. A square pillar is called brahma-kanta. An octagonal one is called vishnu-kanta. A sixteen-sided or circular one is known as rudra-kanta. A pentagonal one is called siva-kanta, and the hexagonal one skanda-kanta. These shapes are stated to be uniform from bottom to top. But the base may be quadrangular. With respect to dimensions and ornaments the five kinds of columns ---brahma-kanta, vishnu-kanta, rudra-kanta, siva-kanta, and skanda-kanta-are called chitra-karna, padma-kanta, chitra-skambha, palika-stambha, and kumbha-stambha. A sixth one, kostha-stambha, in the latter division, is stated to be two-sided, and is the same as the kudya-stambha or pilaster. It should be noticed that the former set of five names refers to the shapes of the shafts, whilst the latter set of five names is based on the shapes of the capitals, but in the detailed description both the capital and shaft are included. Some special kinds of pillars are also described, such as chitrakarna, padma-kanta, chitra-skambha, vira-kantha, palika-stambha, kumbhastambha and koshtha-stambha. Then follow the description and measurement of the mouldings of the pillars. Columns, when in rows, must be in a straight line. 'The intercolumnation may be two, three, four or five diameters; it is measured in three ways, first, from the inner extremity of the base of one pillar to that of another; second, from the centre of the two pillars; and third from the outer extremities of the pillars including the two bases." There seems to be no fixed inter-columnation. This has been left to the discretion of architects who are, however, required to be particularly careful with regard to beauty and utility. Minor pillars should conform to the main pillar. A main pillar with one minor pillar (upapada) is called eka-kanta, with two minor pillars dvi-kanta, and with three minor pillars tri-kanta. A main pillar with four minor pillars is called brahma-kanta, with five siva-kanta, with six skanda-kanta, and with eight minor pillars it is called vishnukanta. There is a long description of the collection of wood for purposes of pillars. The details seem to indicate that at the time when the Manasara was composed, wood was frequently used for making columns; stone pillars are also mentioned, but pillars made of brick alone are not particularly dealt with. It is, however, stated that stone, brick and wood were used for making different parts of a column. The IIO

square adhara or base of a stone pillar, it is stated, should be made of stone, and that of the wooden pillar of wood. But at the end of the next chapter, it is added that all the parts of a column should be made of stone (sila), wood (daru) or brick (ishtaka). In the middle of the same chapter the use of these three materials is elaborately discussed. The pillars, etc., are called suddha (pure) when made of one material, misra (mixed) when made of two materials, and samkirna (amalgamated) when made of all the three (or more) materials. The concluding part of this chapter deals with ceremonics in connexion with erecting columns. They are essentially ritualistic. It is directed that the column should be posted (vesayet) at the side of a mandapa or pavilion. CHAPTER XVI THE ENTABLATURE (Prastara-vidhana) The height of the entablature (prastara), as compared with that of the base (adhishthana), is of six kinds. The height of the former may be equal to that of the latter, or less by 1, or greater by 1, or 1; or it may be twice; or, in cubit (hasta) measurement these six kinds of height of the entablature begin at 7 cubits and end at 4 cubits, the decrement being by cubit. These six kinds of entablatures are respectively used in the houses of the gods, the Brahmans, the kings (or Kshatriyas), the crown-princes (yuvarajas), the Vaisyas, and the Sudras. 2 3 4 The height of the entablature is said to be 1 or 2 of, or equal to, that of the pillar (pada), or greater by 4, or 3. Yet another set of six heights is described. The height of the pillar being divided into eight parts, seven, six, five, four, three or two parts may be assigned to that of the entablature. The greater portion of the chapter is devoted to an enumeration of the various mouldings and the measurement of each of the eight different kinds of entablature. In this chapter the roofing (prachchhadana) of buildings is described. It is stated that a brick-built building may be furnished with a wooden roof, and that the roofs of stone buildings should also be built of stone. I I I

CHAPTER XVII WOOD JOINERY (Sandhikarma-vidhana) The definition of the name (sandhikarman) of the chapter is given in the opening lines. The joining of pieces of wood for buildings is called sandhi-karman. Several kinds of wood-joining are described in detail. Pieces of wood are said to be joined in such a way as to make the nandyavarta, svastika, sarvato-bhadra and such other shapes. Some kinds of wood are strictly forbidden to be joined with some others. Fresh timber, it is stated, should under no circumstances be joined with seasoned wood. It may be noted that wood was very largely used in constructing houses of various kinds; some parts of pillars too were made of wood, as has already been pointed out. Doors were mostly made of wood. The same was the case with couches, cars, chairs, etc. CHAPTER XVIII THE GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF BUILDINGS (Vimana-vidhana) The contents of the chapter are divided into the following headings: the classification of the vimanas of one to twelve storeys; the three styles of architecture; the characteristic features of the stupika or pinnacle, the stupi-kila or pinnacle staff, the lupa or loping roof, and the mukhabhadra or front portico; and the ceremonies of fixing the pinnacle staff. The description begins with the making of the foundation; but this subject has already been dealt with in Chapter XII. The classification of vimanas of one to twelve storeys is elaborately described here, their absolute dimensions having already been given in Chapter XI, called Bhumilamba-vidhana. Each of the twelve classes is subdivided into three types, according to their size-large, intermediate, and small. Whilst the width of the small type of onestoreyed building is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 parts, it should be 5, 6, or 7 parts in the intermediate type, and 6, 7, or 8 parts in the large type. These 'parts' appear to be the partitions of the facade bordered by two pilasters (pada). The three styles of architecture are called nagara, dravida, and vesara, which are apparently geographical names. The distinguishing feature seems to be the general shape of the sikhara or spherical roof. II 2

n the third place, the measurement and mouldings of the pinnacle (stupi or stupika) are given in detail. The height of the stupi is one cubit (hasta) in the houses of the Sudras, two cubits in those of the Vaisyas, two cubits and a half in the houses of the crownprinces (yuvaraja), three cubits in the houses of the kings (Kshatriyas), three cubits and a half in the houses of the Brahmans, and four cubits in the houses of the gods, that is, in temples. Building materials are then discussed. Four kinds of materials are distinctly mentioned: stone, brick, wood, and iron (lauha). Buildings are made of one, two, three, or all four of these materials, but preference is given to the use of one material alone. With regard to materials, buildings are divided into three classes, namely, suddha (pure), made of one material alone, misra (mixed) made of two materials, and samkirna (amalgamated), made of three or more materials. The term stupi-kila literally means the nail or pin of the stupi. Its form is described clearly. It is quadrangular at the base, octagonal at the middle, circular at the top, and tapering gradually from bottom to top. The width at the top is one angula. Then two more architectural members are described, namely, the lupa and the mukha-bhadra. The former is explained by Ram Raz¹ as 'a sloping and a projecting member of the entablature, representing a continued pent roof. It is made below the cupola (sikhara), and its ends are placed as if it were suspended from the architrave, and reaching the stalk of the lotus below." The mukha-bhadra, or front tabernacle or porch according to the same author, indicates an ornamental niche, which occupies a central position in the facade of the building. The chapter concludes with a description of the ceremonies in connexion with fixing the stupi-kila. CHAPTER XIX THE ONE-STOREYED BUILDINGS (Ekhabhumi-vidhana)³ The chapter opens with various classifications of buildings. They are first divided into four classes called jati, chhanda, vikalpa, and abhasa. Here they are considered with regard to their measurement. 'Ram Raz, Essay, p. 52, footnote 2. ³Cf. ibid, pp. 49-53, Plate XXI. * Ibid, p. 51, f. 113 h

The jati class is said to be measured in the purva-hasta, the first kind of cubit, i.e. the cubit of 24 angulas. The chhanda is apparently measured in the cubit of 25 angulas, the vikalpa in the cubit of 26 angulas and the abhasa in the cubit of 27 angulas (?). A further classification is into sthanaka, asana and sayana, which are also called, respectively, samchita, asamchita, and apasamchita. This classification also refers to measurement. In the sthanaka class the measurement of the height is considered, in the asana the breadth is taken into consideration, and in the sayana the width is measured. It should be noted that these three classes, namely, sthanaka, asana, and sayana, have a further signification with regard to the object of worship. In the sthanaka buildings the idol is in an erect posture, in the usana buildings in a sitting posture, and in the sayana buildings in a recumbent posture. A third classification refers to the shape. Buildings are classed as masculine (purusha) when they are equiangular or circular, and as feminine when they are rectangular. Male deities are installed in masculine temples, and female deities in feminine temples. It is added, however, that the images of the latter may be placed in masculine temples too. After this introduction comes the description of one-storeyed buildings. The absolute measurement is referred to in the chapter called Bhumi-lamba (dimensions of storeys). The comparative measurement and plan are described here at great length. The whole height of the building is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are distributed in a happy proportion amongst the different members, namely, the base, the pillar, the entablature, the neck, the dome, and the pinnacle. Similarly, the length of the entire temple is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are also distributed amongst various rooms and halls, namely, the garbha-griha or shrine, the antarala or anteroom, and the mandapa or pavilion. These component parts of the building are described in detail in subsequent chapters, as also the gate-houses (gopura), courts (prakara) and such other architectural members as doors, windows, arches, and so forth. In the present chapter a detailed account is given of the water-channel (nala), which is meant to be an outlet for the water. The eight kinds of one-storeyed buildings are known as jayantika, bhoga, srivisala, svasti-bandhana, srikara, hasti-prshtha, skandhatara, and kesara. 114

he concluding portions of this chapter, as well as of the next eleven chapters, are devoted to an enumeration of the various deities with whose images the doors and walls of buildings should be decorated. The Buddhist and Jain temples, dealt with in only two lines, are directed to be similarly built, with the difference that in these temples the images of the Buddhist and Jain gods should be installed instead of the images of the Brahmans. CHAPTERS XX-XXX BUILDINGS OF Two To TWELVE STOREYS The contents of these eleven chapters of the Manasara may be conveniently summarized together. They deal respectively with two-storeyed (dvi-tala), three-storeyed (tri-tala), four-storeyed (chatustala), five-storeyed (pancha-tala), six-storeyed (shat-tala), seven-storeyed (sapta-tala), eight-storeyed (ashta-tala), nine-storeyed (nava-tala), tenstoreyed (dasa-tala), eleven-storeyed (ekadasa-tala), and twelve-storeyed (dvadasa-tala) buildings. In each of these chapters we find a classification of the peculiar kind of edifice under discussion followed by an account of certain details, in particular the location of the divine images with which the walls are decorated. Thus the buildings of two storeys are divided into eight classes which are called srikara, vijaya, siddha, paushtika, kantaka, adbhuta (also prabhutaka), svastika, and pushkala. Those of three storeys are likewise divided into eight classes, called srikanta, asana, sukhalaya, kesara, kamalanga, brahma-kanta, merukanta, and kailasa. The same eight-fold division is found in connexion with the four-storeyed buildings; here the names are vishnu-kanta, chatur-mukha, sada-siva, rudra-kanta, isvara-kanta, mancha-kanta, vedi-kanta, and indra-kanta. The eight classes of the five-storeyed buildings are called airavata, bhuta-kanta, visva-kanta, murti-kanta, yama-kanta, grhakanta, yajna-kanta and brahma-kanta. In the case of the buildings of six storeys there are no less than thirteen classes, the technical names of which are padma-kanta, kantara, sundara, upakanta, kamala or kamalaksha, ratna-kanta, vipulanka, jyotish-kanta, saroruha, vipulakrti, svasti-kanta, nandyavarta, and ikshu-kanta. The seven-storeyed buildings are divided into eight kinds-pundarika, srikanta, sribhoga, dharana, panjara, asramagara, harmya-kanta, and hima-kanta. The eight classes of eight-storeyed buildings are called bhu-kanta, bhupa-kanta, svarga-kanta, mahakanta, janakanta, tapas-kanta, satya-kanta, and deva-kanta. Those of nine storeys are 115

divided into seven kinds-saura-kanta, raurava, chandita, bhushana, vivrta, supratikanta, and visva-kanta, of which the first four represent the small type of nine-storeyed buildings, the next two the intermediate type, and the last one the large type. The ten-storeyed buildings are divided into six classes, which are named bhu-kanta, chandra-kanta, bhavana-kanta, antariksha-kanta, megha-kanta, and abja-kanta. Buildings of eleven storeys admit six varieties-sambhu-kanta, isa-kanta, chakra-kanta, yama-kanta, vajra-kanta and arka-kanta. Finally, buildings of twelve storeys are divided into ten kinds-panchala, dravida madhya-kanta, kalimga-kanta, virata, kerala, vamsa-kanta, magadha-kanta, janaka-kanta and sphurjaka (? gurjara). It deserves notice that in this instance the term by which the classes are designated are apparently geographical names. In Chapter XXX we find, moreover, an elaborate account of staircases (sopana). CHAPTER XXXI THE COURT (Prakara-vidhana) The chapter begins with the announcement that five kinds of prakara buildings will be described in connexion with bali (offerings), parivara (attendant deities), sobha (beauty), and rakshana (defence). But the main object of the chapter is evidently to describe the various courts into which the whole compound is divided. The description of five such courts is given. The first or innermost court is called antar-mandala. The second is known as anta-hara, and the third as madhya-hara. The fourth court is technically named prakara. The fifth and last one is known as mahamaryada or the extreme boundary. As the title of the chapter indicates, the greater part of it describes only the fourth court. Here it may be briefly observed that this prakara is also divided into the jati, chhanda, vikalpa, abhasa and kamya classes. Under cach class a number of buildings (sala) is exhaustively described. A further classification (sankirna, etc.) is made with regard to the materials of which the prakara buildings are made. These materials are the same as in other cases, namely, stone, brick, and timber. The shrines of the attendant deities (parivara-vimana) and the gatehouses (gopuras) are very briefly described in conclusion, the next two chapters being entirely devoted to a special treatment of these two subjects. 116

PLATE XXIX SRI KASI-VISVANATHA TEMPLE, RAMEsvaram, together wITH ITS COURTYARD, GOPURAM AND AUXILIARY BUILDINGS Page 116

GO WEST GOPU RAM. A. roro [ kou G 5 SCALE 84 FT = ONE INCH A. ju [ 1 PLATE XXX ☐ ☐ GD ☐ GANDHAMADANA OLD TEMPLE. 8. GREAT GOPU RAM C. GOPU RAM AMMAN TEMPLE PLAN OF GANDHAMADANA OLD TEMPLE AND GREAT GOPURAM Page 117

chapter XXXII THE ATTENDANT DEITIES (Parivara-vidhana) The temples of these deities are directed to be built round the prakara. At the eight cardinal points of the innermost or the first court, the temples of a group of eight deities are built. Groups of sixteen and thirty-two deities are located in the second and the third courts respectively. Between the third and the fifth courts is said to be a special pavilion. After an elaborate description of the location of temples for each of the deities of the three groups, the attendant deities of Vishnu are described in detail. With regard to the family of Vishnu, it may be pointed out that it also includes the same three groups of eight, sixteen, and thirtytwo dcitics. The second group relating to Vishnu includes Buddha too. The well-known ten incarnations of Vishnu, except the Matsya (fish) and the Kurma (tortoise), are included in the third group. The temples of the Buddhists and Jains, it is expressly stated, should be constructed according to the rules of their own Sastras. It should be noticed that the description of the temples intended for so many deities does not contain any measurements, etc. The text is solely occupied with the location of these temples or deities in the compound. But a considerable portion of the chapter is devoted to the description of mandapas (pavilions) for such purposes as bathing, sleeping, assemblies, performances of musicians and dancing girls, and stabling of cows and horses. CHAPTER XXXIII THE GATE-HOUSE (Gopura-vidhana) Gate-houses (gopura) are built in front of each of the five courts into which the whole compound is divided. The gopura belonging to the first court (antar-mandala) is technically called dvara-sobha or the beauty of the gate¹; that belonging to the second court is known as dvara-sala or gate-house. The gate-house of the third court is called dvara-prasada (gate-palace), and that of the fourth court (prakara) has the name of dvara-harmya (gate-edifice). The gate-house of the 1 This term in Prakrit form (duarasoha) occurs in the Mrichchhakatika (ed. Stenzler), pp. 72, 1, 13, in the description of Vasantasena's palace (Act V), which is divided into seven courts. 117

fifth or outermost court (mahamaryada) is known as mahagopura or the great gate-house. Each of these five classes of gate-houses is subdivided again into three kinds the small, the intermediate, and the large. Gate-houses are exhaustively described under these fifteen kinds. They are further divided into ten (? ninc) classes with regard to the number of architectural members designated as sikhara (domes), stupika (pinnacle), gala-kuta (neck-peak), and kshudra-nasi (vestibule). A gopura is thus technically called sribhoga when its sikha is like a sala, and it has a circular surrounding stupika, and is furnished with a gala-kuta, four kshudranasis, and eight mahanasis. The remaining nine (eight) classes are called respectively jaya, srivisala, vishnu-kanta, indra-kanta, brahmakanta, skanda-kanta, srikara and saumya-kanta. The name of one of these classes is evidently missing. The fifteen kinds of gate-houses referred to above may have one to sixteen or seventeen storeys. But the details of those of one to five storeys only are given, others being left to the discretion of the artists and stated to be built in the same way as those described so minutely. The measurements, both absolute and comparative, of length, breadth, and height of each storey belonging to cach of the fifteen kinds of gate-houses are described at great length. The ornaments. and mouldings of cach storey are also given in detail. The garbha griha (cella or sanctum), as well as all other rooms, together with their different parts, such as pillars, entablatures, walls, roofs, floors, doors, windows, etc., are exhaustively discussed. The measurements, etc., of the gate-houses are discussed in comparison with those of the main buildings also. Then follows a lengthy description of their solid (ghana) and hollow (aghana) parts. The description of some interior members is also included in this section. The chapter closes with an interesting description of windows, not only for gate-houses, but also for other kinds of buildings, both religious and residential. The general plan of windows seems to be this a post or pillar is fixed in the middle to which are attached two perforated screens (jalaka and palika). These admit of various patterns, represented by the following names, by which they are classed with regard to their shapes, naga-bandha (snake-pattern), valli-bandha (creeper pattern), gavaksha (cow's eye pattern), kunjaraksha (elephant's eye pattern), svastika (cross pattern), sarvato-bhadra (car pattern), 118

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nandyavarta (geometrical pattern) and pushpa-bandha (flower pattern). They are decorated with floral and foliated ornaments, as well as with decorative devices in imitation of jewels. The measurement of length, breadth, and thickness is entirely left to the discretion of the artist. But it is stated in conclusion that, according to some authorities, the width of the windows for gate-houses varies from 1 to 5 cubits (hasta), the increment being by six angulas. As stated clsewhere the height is regulated by five formulas, viz., 14, 1 1/2, 11, 2, 2 of the width. Chapter XXXIV THE PAVILION (Mandapa-vidhana) The terin mandapa generally means a temple, pavilion, bower, shed or open hall. But the word has been used in three technical senses in this chapter. It is used to imply a single-storeyed house in the country, etc., or built on the sea-shore or the bank of a river, tank, or lake; secondly, it is used to imply all the detached buildings in a compound which is generally divided into five courts. But in the most general sense, it implics various sorts of rooms in a temple or residential building; for the greater part of this long chapter is devoted to a description of these rooms. After an account of the architectural members indicated by the technical terms bhitti (foundation wall or floor), alinda (verandah), and prapa (shed), follows the lengthy description of mandapas. Seven mandapas are said to be built in front of the prasada or the main edifice. They are technically called himaja, nishadaja, vindhyaja, malyaja, pariyatra, gandha-madana and hema-kuta respectively. One is said to be used for the purpose of a bath-room, another for a study or school (adhyayana), and so forth. Various parts of these buildings, such as walls, roofs, floors, verandas, court-yards, doors, windows, columns, etc., are described in detail. Besides these seven, various other classes of mandapas are also described exhaustively. Their technical names, together with the main purposes for which they are built, may be given here. The meruja-mandapa is used as a library-room, the vijaya for marriage ceremonics, the padmaka as a temple kitchen, the sicha as an ordinary kitchen, the padma for collecting flowers, the bhadra for a 119

water reservoir, store-house, etc., the siva for unhusking corn, the veda for an assembly-hall, the kula-dharana for storing perfumes, the sukhanga for a guest-house, the darva for an elephant's stable, and the kausika for a horse stable, the saukhyaka and others built on the banks of the sea, river, lake, etc., are meant for purposes of pilgrimage, and the jayala and others for summer residence. The plan, ornaments, ctc., of each of these various classes are described in detail. The chapter closes with a description of the forms of mandapas. Those of temples and of the houses of the Brahmans should have the jati shape. The chhanda shape is given to the mandapas of the Kshatriyas, the vikalpa shape to those of the Vaisyas, and the abhasa shape to those of the Sudras. But according to some, these four classes are also said to be based on the form of the bhadra or front portico. The mandapas of two faces are called dandaka and those of three faces svastika ; but the latter may also have the langala or plough shape. The mandapas of four faces are known as chatur-mukha, those of five faces as sarvato-bhadra, and those of six faces as maulika. A short description of mandapas in villages or towns is given at the end. Their principal members are said to be the lupa (pent roof), prastara (entablature), prachchhadana (roof), sabha (hall), kuta (pinnacle), etc. Mandapas are also built on the roadside and elsewhere. All classes of mandapas mentioned above are described separately, according as they may belong to a temple or to the houses of the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas, and the Sudras respectively. CHAPTER XXXV THE STOREYED MANSION (Sala-vidhana) The Storeyed Mansions consist of rows of buildings varying from one to ten. The blocks of buildings varying in number of storeys up to twelve are artistically joined up. They are classified under six main groups called dandaka, svastika, maulika, chatur-mukha, sarvatobhadra, and vardhamana. Each of these is again subdivided into several types: the arrangement of the dandaka mansion, for instance, is described under cight varieties. The dandaka is an isolated mansion and consists of a single row of buildings and would look like a stick (dandaka). The svastika mansion is plough-shaped and consists of two rows of buildings. The maulika mansion is shaped like a winnowing basket 120

and consists of three rows of buildings. The chatur-mukha mansion is four-faced and consists of four rows of buildings. The sarvatobhadra mansion consists of seven rows of buildings, and the vardhamana of ten rows. The huge buildings are naturally meant for kings, to the nine classes of whom they are assigned in accordance with the importance of the mansions and the rank of the king. But they are also stated to be used by the gods, the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas, the Sudras, the ascetics, the hermits, the priests, the Buddhists, the warriors fighting with the help of the horse, the elephant, and the chariot, the artists, and the courtesans. The lay-out, architectural members with dimensions, ornaments, and other details are fully described. A special feature of the present chapter is the consideration of the times and scason proper for the building of a sala. Certain months and seasons are stated to be quite unsuitable for this purpose. Astrological and ritualistic considerations form another peculiarity of this chapter. Some classes of salas are said to suit particular people born under the influences of certain planets and stars. The chapter closes with an account of the rules of shad-varga as applied to salas, and with an enumeration of the various parts of a sala. CHAPTER XXXVI THE SITUATION AND DIMENSIONS OF DWELLING HOUSES (Griha-mana-sthana-vinyasa) The main object of the chapter is to describe the arrangement and situation of houses in the compound. The breadth of a house is said to be of five kinds, namely, from two or three dandas to ten or eleven dandas, the increment being by two dandas. The length may be equal to twice the breadth. Houses are stated to be built in a village, town, port (pattana), grove, or hermitage, near a hill or mountain, or on the bank of a river, etc. In Chapter XXXIV various sorts of mandapas have been stated to be located in different parts of the five courts into which the whole compound of a temple is divided. In the present chapter, structures intended for various purposes are located in the different squares into which an inhabited area is divided, according to the parama-sadhika plan described in Chapter VII, called Pada-vinyasa. 121

The Brahma-sthana, or the central square, is stated to be unfit for a residential building. The temple of the family god is generally built in this part. Round this are constructed the dwelling-houses for the master of the family, his wife and children, and servants, sheds for cows, horses, poultry, etc., the kitchen and dining hall, etc., rooms for guests, for reading or study, for the daily sacrifices of the upper caste people, for amusements and music, for the dancing girls, and for all other domestic purposes. The arrangement of these different structures is, however, slightly different according to the caste and social position of the family. But the general plan of the dwellinghouses for a family is the same in all cases. CHAPTER XXXVII THE FIRST ENTRY INTO THE HOUSE (Griha-pravcsa-vidhana) The ceremonies in connexion with the opening of and first entry into a house are described in detail. An auspicious day and moment, and the worship and sacrifice in this connexion, are still usually observed in India. The masters of the ceremonies are stated to be the sthapati and the sthapaka. They lead the procession in circumambulating the village and the compound before the ceremonial entry into the house. The head of the family and his consort are usually the chief figures in these affairs. After completing the worship and sacrifice, a prayer is offered to the guardian angel of the house (GrhaLakshmi) to confer male offspring, wealth, and long life, on the master of the house.¹ After the solemn entrance into the house has been performed, the householder should feed the Brahmans, and present the architects and their followers with rich gifts. CHAPTER XXXVIII THE LOCATION OF DOORS (Dvara-sthana) Doors and gates have already been described on various occasions. Two separate chapters are now devoted to the arrangement, location, measurement, and ornamentation of doors to be used in all kinds of buildings. Such a special description of windows has 1 The mantra to be recited runs : he laksmih grhakartaram putrapautradhanadibhih | sampurna kuru cayusyam prathayami namastute || 122

already been noted at the end of Chapter XXXIII on gate-houses (gopura). It is stated in this chapter that four main doors are constructed on the four sides of all kinds of buildings of gods and men. In most cases four smaller doors are also made at the four corners. Many other smaller doors are prescribed in the intervening spaces. Drains (jala-dvara) are made underneath the house. The main doors are always furnished with a flight of steps In many buildings the entrance-door is made, not at the middle of the frontage, but on either side of it. But in some houses they may be made in the middle of the front wall. In the case of kitchens, in particular, the main doors must be at the middle of the wall. It is also stated expressly that where it is inconvenient to make so many smaller doors, as prescribed here, they should be replaced by windows. The materials with which doors are constructed are mainly timber, but stone is used in some exceptional cases. CHAPTER XXXIX THE MEASUREMENT OF Doors (dvara-mana-vidhana) The common rule is that the height of a door should be twice its breadth. But various alternative measurements are also given. The height of the larger doors may vary from 1 cubits (hasta) to 7 cubits, the increment being by 6 angulas. The height of the smaller doors varies from one cubit to three cubits, the increment being by 3 angulas. In the former case, therefore, we have twenty-three, in the latter seventeen, varieties of dimensions. These dimensions are prescribed for doors in the jati class of buildings. But other measurements are given for doors in houses of the chhanda, vikalpa and abhasa classes. The alterative dimensions are modified by the application of the shad-varga formulas. The door-posts and other parts of the door are then described at great length. Doors are generally of double leaves, but those of single leaf are also mentioned. Doors are profusely decorated with foliated and floral ornaments. The images of Gancsa, Sarasvati, and other deities should be carved over the entrance. 123

CHAPTER XL THE ROYAL Palace (Raja-grha-vidhana) Palaces are divided into nine classes with regard to their size, according as they may belong to a king of any of the nine classes. enumerated in the next chapter. Each class of palaces, whether of a chakravartin, maharaja, narendra, mandalesa, etc., admits of nine sizes. For each one of the nine main classes it is further laid down that it should consist of a certain number of halls (sala). Thus the palace of the chakravartin, universal monarch or emperor, ghould have from one to seven halls; that of the adhiraja (or maharaja) from one to six halls; that of the narendra from one to five halls, and so forth. Then the location of the various palace buildings is minutely described on the basis of the Paramasadhika plan explained in Chapter VII called Padavinyasa. The Brahma-pitha is installed in the Brahma-sthand, the square in the centre. The main palace of each of the nine classes of kings is then located in some of the remaining square-Indra, Varuna, Yama, Pushpadanta, etc. Among the other palace buildings enumerated we find mention of the residences of the queens, the princesses, and the private council-hall. Other buildings, which are necessary adjuncts to the dwelling of an Indian king, are the coronation pavilion (abhishekadi-mandapa), the arsenal (ayudhalaya), the store-house (vastu-nikshcpa-mandapa), the house for keeping ornaments (bhushanalaya), the dining-hall (bhojanamandapa), the kitchen (pachanalaya), the flower pavilion (pushpamandapa), the baths (majjanalaya), the bed-chamber (sayanalaya), and several others. These all belong to the inner part (antah-ssala) of the palace. In the outer part (bahih-sala) are situated the residences of the crown prince (yuvaraja), of the family priest (purohita), of the ministers and others, likewise the hall of public audience (asthana-mardapa), temples, etc. Pleasure-gardens, flower gardens, groves, tanks, etc., are assigned their proper places. Stables for horses, elephants, and cow-sheds, etc.. are generally made near the main gate. Other animals, which are kept within the royal enclosure, are rams, cocks, deer, and antelopes, monkeys, tigers, and peacocks. Pavilions to witness ram-fights and cock-fights (mesha-yuddhartha-mandapa, kukkuta yuddha-mandapa) 124

INDIA AND abroad MANASARA are specially mentioned. The jail (karagara) is located in a rather out-of-the-way place, such as the bhrsa or the antariksha part. At the end of the chapter it is stated that, for the rest, the arrangement is left to the choice of the king and to the discretion of the architects. CHAPTERS XLI-XLII ROYAL COURTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGS (Rajanga-lakshana, Bhupala-lakshana) These two chapters deal with the royal courts, the classification of kings, the qualities which are required in a good ruler, and so forth. Kings are divided, in descending progression of rank, into nine classes, namely, chakravartin, maharaja (or adhiraja), mahendra (or narendra), parshnika, pattadhara, mandlesa, pattabhaj, praharaka, and astragrahin. The opening and closing lines of Chapter XLI describe the general qualifications of all kings. They should know philosophy and religion and must be learned in all the Sastras, and in the political, military, civil and moral laws. They should be haughty (uddhata), gracious (lalita), and generous (udatta) in their behaviour. They should have the direct knowledge of and control over the subordinate kings and ministers. They should themselves be great warriors and wise in all matters. The treasury should always be kept full and they should themselves be religious and of strict morals. They should be the protectors of their subjects. They should possess peace of mind, love of fame, good taste in matters of art, and fondness for n.usic (Gandharva- sastra). Then it is stated of each of the nine classes of kings what should be the number of his horses, elephants, soldiers, women, and queens. The astragrahin, for instance, who is least in rank, is said to possess 500 horses, 500 elephants, an army of 50,000 soldiers, 500 female attendants, and one queen (mahishi). The praharaka, who follows next, has 600 horses, 600 elephants, 100,000 soldiers, 700 beautiful women, and two queens. The highest figures are reached in the case of the chakravartin or universal monarch. Chapter XLII begins with the classification of kings mentioned above. The extent of their kingdoms and some special characteristics of each of the nine classes of kings are then described. The empire of the chakravartin reaches as far as the four oceans (chatuh-sagara). He 125

ROYAL PALACE FROM MANASARA. Royal Palace 2 Brahma Pitha 3 Court Ladi Flower Garden B Garden 6 Yank 7 Strong Room a www Treasur + Arsenal 10 Maternity 11 Coronation, Hall 12 Armoury 13 Garde 14 Gale 15. For Prince 16 Flower Pavilion 16 Carriage Shed 17 Family Pris 19 20 Barber Palangin Ber 21 Male Servaria 22. Dear 23. Birda 24. Peacock 25. Temple -26. 27. Dance Pavilion Stable 28. For Chanting Hymnej 29. Cow Shed 30. For Monkeys 31. Becret Room 32. Elephant 33. Prison 34. War Office 35. Council Hall 36. Theatre 37. Ram 38. Stadium 81% Tiger 40. Other Ferocious Beasts 41. For Watching 42. Watch Tow * ROYAL PALACE PLATE XXXIII MANASARA n a rather part. At : arrangeon of the Page 124 fication of so forth. into nine narendra), rahin. ie general 1 religion military, gracious ould have kings and vise in all ey should d be the id, love of Sandharuashould be 1 queens. to possess ɔo female to follows beautiful 1 the case nentioned acteristics ne empire gara). He

is the suzerain of all subordinate kings. He is strict in his judgment of right and wrong, but protects the people with kindness and mercy. He is famous and the most fortunate of all. The next king (maharaja or adhiraja) is the lord of seven kingdoms. He has the six principal kingly qualities (guna), the six strengths (bala), and the three powers. (sakti). He is also versed in politics (niti). He is born either in the solar or in the lunar race. The remaining seven classes of kings are similarly described. A point of great historical interest in this passage is that royalty is no longer the monopoly of the Kshatriyas. A king may belong to any of the four castes-the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas, and even the Sudras. The praharaka is expressly stated to belong to any of the four castes. The nine kinds of crowns, which pertain to these nine classes of kings, are then described. This subject, however, is more elaborately treated in Chapter XLIX (Abhisheka-lakshana). Next comes the description of the nine kinds of thrones used by the nine classes of kings. Here other royal insignia, particularly the white umbrella (dhavala-chhattra), and the chowrie or fly-whisk made of the yak's tail (chamara) are also mentioned. Thrones, it will be noticed, are fully dealt with in Chapter XLV (Simhasana-lakshana-vidhana). The next point of importance is the rate of royal revenue. The chakravartin takes only one-tenth of the produce as his share. The maharaja takes one-sixth, the narendra one-fifth, the parshnika onequarter, the pattadhara one-third; the exact proportions of the other kings' shares are not given. No tax should be illegally imposed, Punishment and fines should be legal and moderate. The temples, as well as the Brahmans, the hermits and similar people should be supported by the state. At the end of the chapter it is stated that this description of kings is made on the authority of the Vedas, the Puranas, and the Sastras. 1 The six qualities (guna) of a king are found in Manu, VII, 160: sandhim ca vigraham caiva yanamasanameva ca | dvaidhibhavam samsrayam ca sadgunam cintayetsada || Let him [the king] constantly think of the six measures of royal policy (guna), viz. alliance, war, marching, halting, dividing the army, and seeking protection (Buhler, S. B. E., XXV, p. 241). But according to another source the six gunas or qualities of a king are valour, energy, firmness, ability, liberality and majesty. The three royal powers (Sakti) are found in the imarakosha 2, 8, 1, 19-saktayas tisrah prabhavotsaha mantrajah, the three powers come forth from majesty, energy, and good counsel.' 126

(Ratha-laksha na-vidhana) Cars and chariots are constructed for the ceremonial and ordinary use of gods, Brahmans and kings, as well as for war and other purposes. The wheels and other parts of cars, their shapes, their measurements, their ornamentations and mouldings are described in order. The chapter begins with a minute description of the wheel, the most important part of the car. It is always circular, and is furnished with a strong tyre of similar shape. All its parts, together with their measurements, are described in detail-the kukshi (navel, lit. belly), aksha (axle), sikha or danta (axle-band), chhidra (hole) and the kila (axle-bolt, linch-pin), etc. Particular trees yielding timber for the wheel are enumerated. On a double support (called adhara and upadhara), which rests on the axles, is raised a lofty structure which is provided with balconies (bhadra) and profusely decorated. It may have as many as nine storeys, the height of each upper storey being smaller than that of the one just preceding. The exact proportion is not given. The forms of cars are next discussed. With regard to their shapes, cars are divided into seven classes-nabhasvad-bhadraka, prabhanjanabhadraka, nivata-bhadraka, pavana-bhadraka, prshada-bhadraka, indraka-(or chandraka-) bhadraka, and anila-bhadraka. The first of these is square, the second hexagonal, the third should have two bhadras, and the fourth three bhadras, the fifth and the sixth should have ten bhadras, and the last one should be furnished with twelve bhadras. The description of the different shapes of cars is rather confusing. According to another classification given here, the square cars are called nagara, the octagonal ones dravida, the circular ones vesara, the hexagonal ones andhra, and the oval ones kalinga. These cars, in accordance with the different purposes referred to above, have various kinds of wheels and other members. Thus a fighting car has three wheels, the car for mock-fighting has four wheels, one for ordinary festivals (nityotsava) has five wheels, one for special festivals (mahotsava) may have six, seven, eight, nine or ten wheels. In the same manner the number of vedis (platforms) varies according to the special purpose for which a car is to be used. Thus it is stated that the chariot of the universal monarch (sarvabhauma) should have one to nine vedikas, that of the maharaja one to 127

seven vedikas, that of the narendra one to five vedikas, and so forth. The cars of Vishnu and Siva should consist of one to nine vedikas, those of Buddhist and Jain deities one to seven vedikas, and in the case of other gods the number should be four, or one to five. These cars should be decorated with peacocks' feathers, chowries, arches (torana), little bells, bright mirrors, fans and garlands. There should be also carved images of various deities, particularly on the upper part of the structure, while the basement is adorned with representations of lions, elephants, and crocodiles (hari-kari-makararupaih), with foliated ornamentation and with figures of dancers (nataka), bhutas and yakshas. CHAPTER XLIV COUCHES (Sayana-vidhana) Couches are meant for the use of deities, the twice-born, and members of other castes. They are said to be of two kinds, the small (bala-paryanka) and the large (paryanka), the one being distinguished from the other by its size alone. The measurement and various parts of the two kinds of couches are described separately. The width of the bala-paryanka may vary from 11 to 25 angulas, the increment being by 2 angulas. This makes eight varieties. The paryanka proper admits of nine varieties, as they may be from 21 to 37 angulas in width with increments of 2 angulas. It may be pointed out that they are generally furnished with four legs, and castors are attached to the legs so that they may easily be moved from one place to another. The legs of royal couches should be decorated with lions. The proportion of breadth to length shows that couches are generally rectangular in shape. Special mention is made of swings suspended from four chains, which are said to be used by the gods, the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas, etc. The material of which couches and seats (asana) are constructed is the wood of certain trees. For the leg, special kinds of timber are recommended. 128

(Simhasana-laksha na-vidhana) The expression simhasana implies a scat marked with a lion. This lion-seat or throne is made for the use of deities and kings. Royal thrones are divided into four classes. The prathamasana is said to be fit for the first (prathama) coronation, the mangala throne for the coronation called mangala. The vira throne for the vira coronation, and the vijaya throne for the vijaya coronation. What is evidently meant is that these four thrones are employed for the four successive stages of the coronation of one and the same king. As for the deities, the nityarchana throne, as the name indicates, is used for daily worship, the nityotsava throne for ordinary festivities, the visesharchana throne for special worship, and the mahotsava throne for great festivals. Next comes a further division of thrones into ten kinds. An account of the general plan, as well as the measurements of the various parts of them, is given in detail. They are technically called padmasana, padmakesara, padma-bhadra, sribhadra, srivisala, sribandha, srimukha, bhadrasana, padma-bandha and pada-bandha. Nine kinds of dimensions are given to each of the above-mentioned thrones. The right proportion in each case should be selected by the application of the rules of shad-varga. Of the ten kinds, the first, padmasana, is used as the throne for Siva or Vishnu, the padma-kesara for the other gods and for the chakravartin, the padma-bhadra for the adhiraja (i.e. the maharaja), the sribhadra is suitable for the adhiraja and the narendra, the srivisala for the narendra and the parshnika, the sribandha for the parshnika and the pattadhara, the srimukha for the mandalesa, the bhadrasana for the pattabhaj, the padma-bandha for the praharaka, and the pada-bandha throne for the astragrahin. It is expressly stated that lion-shaped legs should not be made for the throne of the last class of kings; but in the case of all other kings, the thrones are marked with lions and furnished with six legs. They are generally placed facing the east. The thrones of deities should face the four quarters. At the end of the chapter the author says that the 'thrones of Vishnu, Rudra, Jinaka, Indra, and all the other prominent gods, and also of the kings have thus been described.' It should be noticed that in the description itself no reference whatever is made to thrones of the Buddhist or Jain deities, as the term Jinaka would seem to imply. 129

CHAPTER XLVI ARCHES (Torana-vidhana) The torana, or arch, is stated to be an ornament for the thrones (asana) of gods and kings. It is supported on dwarf pillars (anghri), which rest on the pedestal (pitha) of the image. The arch admits of various shapes. It may be circular, triangular, crescent-shaped, bow-shaped, or of any other suitable form. Directions for making these arches, as well as the measurements of their constituent parts, are given in detail. With regard to their ornamentation, arches are divided into four kinds, technically called patra-torana (foliated arch), pushpa-torana (floral arch), ratna-torana (jewelled arch), and chitra-torana (ornamental arch). The various ornaments of arches are then described in detail. The top of the torana should be decorated with figures of the heavenly musicians, Tumburu and Narada, while makaras (crocodiles) are placed at the sides. The arch is supported by leogryphs (vyali), which are placed on both sides of the pillars. For the rest the patra-torana, as the name indicates, is mainly adorned with foliated ornaments, the pushpa-torana with flowers, and the ratna-torana with jewels. Among the other decorative devices mentioned we find the effigies of different classes of semi-divine beings, such as yakshas, vidyadharas, kinnaras, and kinnaris. At the end of the chapter it is said that arches may also be made without any ornamentation (chitra-hina). CHAPTER XLVII THE THEATRE (Madhyaranga-vidhana) In the first verse we meet with the expression mukta-prapanga, which appears to be used in the same sense as madhya-ranga. It is provided with dwarf pillars or pilasters (anghri-pada), and consists of various other members (masuraka, vedi, mancha, kuttima, upapitha, etc.), and is decorated with uttaras, vajanas, mushti-bandhas and lupas. It should be furnished with four bhadras (or with one bhadra) and with eight or sixteen kshudra-nasis. The upper portion is adorned with figures of leogryphs (vyali) and crocodiles (makara). From the last but one verse of the chapter it is evident that there must be a close connexion between the mukta-parapnga, on the one hand, and the simhasana, the makara-torana and the kalpa-vrksha, on the other hand, the latter three 130

subjects being discussed in the two immediately preceding and the following chapters. From this verse it will be seen that the materials to be used for the mukta-prapanga, etc., are wood, stone, brick (terra-cotta ?) and various kinds of metal (loha, literally iron). CHAPTER XLVIII THE ORNAMENTAL TREES (Kalpa-vrksha-vidhana) The name of the chapter is Kalpa-vriksha, which literally means a mythical tree granting all wishes or, in other words, an all-productive tree. But here it is undoubtedly a decorative device surmounting a seat (asana) or throne. It is also mentioned in connexion with the mukta-prapanga, the mandapa, and the makara-torana. The minute description and measurement of the various parts of the tree are given. Its trunk (pada) is wound with a serpent, with expanded five-fold hood. The measurements of the snake, of its hood, and of its tail are described in detail. The number of branches as well as their size varies according to the special purpose of the throne, for the decoration of which the tree is meant. The tree is beautifully decorated with creepers, leaves, and flowers of various colours and forms. Jewels and garlands of pearls are inserted in suitable places. The figures of deities, siddhas, vidyadharas, monkeys, etc., are placed in the intervals between the branches. Many other particulars regarding this ornamental tree are left to the discretion of the artist. Chapter XLIX CROWNS AND CORONATION (Abhisheka-lakshana-vidhana) The chapter is divided into two parts: the first part describes the crowns of gods and kings, and the second deals with the ceremonies of the coronation of kings. The chapter opens very unusually with the description of the lavish presents to be made to the architects. These gifts consist, among other things, of girls, wealth, land, houses, and servants, both male and female. After this introduction there follows an enumeration of the various headdresses used by gods and kings, namely, jata, mauli, kirita, karanda, 131

sirastraka, kundala (kuntala ?), kesa-bandha, dhammilla, alaka, chuda, mukuta and patta (turban). Of these, the last-mentioned is subdivided into three kinds, called foliated, jewelled, and floral turbans (patra-patta, ratana-patta, and pushpa-patta). The jata (matted hair) and the mukuta (lit. diadem) are said to suit Brahma and Siva. The kirita and mukuta are suited to Narayana (i.e. Vishnu). Other minor gods wear the karanda and mukuta. The love-goddess, Rati (Manonmani), wears a jata, mauli, mandala, or kundala. Sarasvati and Savitri put on a kesa-bandha and a kundala. All the female deities may wear a karanda or mukuta. Among the kings, the chakravartin (sarvabhauma) and the adhiraja wear the kirita. The narendra puts on a karanda, and the parshnika a sirastraka. But the chakravartin and other kings may wear a karanda or mukuta. The patra-patta is suited to the patta-dhara, the ratna-patta to the mandalesa, the pushpa-patta to the pattabhaj, and the pushpa-malya (flower wreath) to the praharaka and the astragraha. The kundala (or kuntala) and mukuta are prescribed for the queen of a chakravartin, the kesabandha for the queens of an adhiraja and a narendra, the dhammilla and kumuda-kuntala for the queens of a parshnika, a pattadhara, a mandalesa or a pattabhaj, and the alaka and chuda for the queens of a praharaka and an astragraha. The height of a crown varies with the importance of the divine or royal bearers; it is set forth at considerable length. Next is described in detail the number of gold pieces and precious jewels in the crowns worn by the kings of various ranks and by their consorts. The forms of these crowns are then described. The second part of the chapter deals with the royal coronation (abhisheka). In the coronation ceremonies of the chakravartin and other kings, four stages are prescribed, which are called prathama (here called prapta), mangala, vira, and vijaya. In this matter, too, the architects take a leading part. The sthapati, the sthapaka, and the Brahman priest perform the ankurarpana and all other ceremonies ending with the adhivasana. Afterwards the king is anointed with various auspicious substances. This is the abhisheka proper. The king is then adorned with the royal robes, the sacred thread and various ornaments, and led to the coronation hall (abhisheka-mandapa) which is furnished with the madhra-ranga, the royal thrones, the wish-yielding tree (kalpa-vriksha), 132

the ornamental arch (torana), and other emblems of empire.¹ The king and the queen take their places side by side on their thrones, the queen being on the left side of the king. The crown is held by the leading priests (purohita-purogah); but it is actually placed on the king's head by the sthapati and the two sthapakas at an auspicious moment during the pronouncement of svasti and other auspicious sounds. After this the king is garlanded, anointed, and besprinkled with various substances of good augury. Then the king mounts an elephant and circumambulates the city amidst acclamations of felicity. On the occasion of the entry into the palace, a curious ceremony takes place in order to determine the success awaiting the new king, as well as the future prosperity of the kingdom. Various auspicious and inauspicious things are arranged in a hall in the palace. The king is led there blind-folded and has to pick up anything he chooses. The thing thus picked up by the blind-folded king points to the prosperity of the people and victory of the king, or the opposite. 'If the rice-porridge or rice be touched [by him] there will be an increase of rice. If the heap of corn is touched by the [royal] hand there will be plenty of food (subhiksha). If gold and other precious metals be touched, it indicates that the subjects will prosper. If the sword or other weapons be touched, it bespeaks the king's prowess. It would be unfortunate for the whole kingdom, if any inauspicious things be touched by the king.' The chapter closes with a recapitulation of the four forms of coronation, the directions as to the conduct of the ceremonial regal procession and a reference to the authorities (Vedas and Puranas) under which the coronation ceremonics are prescribed. CHAPTER L THE ORNAMENTS OF THE BODY AND ARTICLES OF FURNITURE (Bhushana-laksha na-vidhana) In the first verse it is announced that the chapter is devoted to a description of the ornaments of gods and kings. In reality, only the first part of the chapter deals with ornaments proper, and the remaining 1 Cf. Hultzsch, South Indian Inscription, Vol. I, p. 54, 11, 23-25, where in an Eastern Chalukya grant the makaratorana is mentioned among the royal insignia. Professor Hultzsch quotes Sanderson's Canarese Dictionary, where the word is explained as an honorary wreath or string of flowers, etc., raised upon poles and carried in front of one, as an emblem of distinction." 133

portion deal with certain miscellaneous articles of furniture, such as lamp-posts, fans, mirrors, swings, and so forth. The first part is called 'ornaments of the body' (anga-bhushana), and the second, external ornaments (bahir-bhushana). Ornaments proper are here divided into four classes, namely, patrakalpa, chitra-kalpa, ratna-kalpa, and misrita. All these are suited to the deities. The emperor or universal monarch (chakravartin, sarvabhauma) can put on all these ornaments excepting the patra-kalpa. The adhiraja and narendra can wear both the ratna-kalpa and the misrita. The misrakalpa is prescribed for all other kings. The patra-kalpa ornaments are so called, because they show foliated decoration. The chitra-kalpa kind consists of floral and foliated designs, precious stones, and images (nataka). The ratna-kalpa variety is made of flowers and jewels. The misra-kalpa decoration consists of leaves and jewels, and, in short, a mixture of all others. These four kinds, it should be observed, are specially made for the images of gods and kings only. The following is a list of the personal ornaments mentioned in the course of the chapter: Kirita-a diadem, a crown. Siro-vibhushana-a head ornament. Chudamani a crest-jewel Kundala-an car-ring. Tatanka (or tadanka)-a kind of ear ornament. Makara-bhushana-an ear-pendant decorated with crocodile pattern (makara nkita-kundala). Kankana-a bracelet. Keyura, kataka-an armlet worn on the upper-arm. Valaya an armlet worn round the upper-arm (bahumule) or on the forearm (prakoshtha). Purima for the upper-arm. Mani-bandha-kalapa¹-a jewelled ornament worn on the forearm. Kinkini-valaya--a bracelet (or anklet) fitted with little bells. Anguliyaka a finger-ring. Ratna nguliyaka-a jewelled finger-ring. Hara 2 Ardha-hara -a string of pearls worn round the neck. 1 Cf. mukta-kalapa (Kumara-sambhava, I, 43). 2 According to Brihat-samhita, LXXXII, 32, a chain of 108 strings is styled a hara and a chain of 64 strings an ardhahara. Kern's Verspr. Geschr., Vol. 11, p. 101. 134

ala-a garland or necklace hanging down from both shoulders. Vana-mala-a garland of wild flowers. Nakshatra-mala¹-a necklace of 27 pearls. Daman a garland or string worn round the shoulders. Stana-sutra Suvarna-sutra } -a cord or chain worn round the breasts. Pura-sutra-a cord or chain worn round the chest. Udara-bandha-a girdle worn round the waist. Kati-sutra a cord or chain round the loins. Mekhala-a girdle, a belt. Suvarna-kanchuka-a golden cuirass (or bodice). Nupura an anklet. Valaya-a bracelet. Pada-jala-bhushana-a net-like ornament worn on the feet.2 The following articles, which are reckoned to belong to the ' external' ornaments (bahirbhushana), are described in great detail: (1) the dipadanda (lamp-post); (2) the vyajana (fan); (3) the darpana (mirror); (4) the manjusha (basket, chest, box); (5) the dola (swing or palanquin); (6) the tula (balance) and (7) the panjara (cage), nida (net) for domestic animals and birds. The lamp-posts (dipa-danda) 3 are of two kinds, the stationary, placed in front of the house, and the movable. The former are made of wood, iron, or stone, the latter of wood or iron. They may be square, octagonal, or circular in shape. The vedika (platform) or the pedestal at the bottom of these is generally shaped like a lotus. Lamp-posts generally taper from the bottom upwards. Various other parts and also the mouldings of lamp-posts are described in detail. Their measurements are also given. The fan-post (vyajana-danda), as well as the fan itself, is described in a like manner. These posts are made of timber or iron, but the fans appear to be made of leather. 1 A nakshatra-mala (lit. a star-cluster) consists of 27 pearls in accordance with the number of nakshatras or lunar mansions. Cf. Brihat-samhita, LXXXII. 34. 2 A few more terms of uncertain meaning are mentioned, namely: viseshika (=tilaka?), balapatta, chulika, kesakutaka and mallika. 3 In literature we find the evidently synonymous expression dipavriksha (lit. lamp-tree). Mahabh. XII, 7204; XIV, 1737. Ram. (ed. Gorresio), II, 5, 18; Buddhacharita (ed. Cowell), V, 44. Monumental lamp pillars of stone, now-adays designated by the name of dipdan, are found especially in the South of India. Cf. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, revised edition, Vol. I, pp. 347 sq., and II, 81. 135

Nine alternative measurements are prescribed for the mirror, namely, from 5 (or 6) angulas up to 21 (or 22) angulas. The mirror should be quite circular (suvrtta), with the edge a little raised. The surface must be perfectly bright, the rim being decorated with lincar ornaments (rekha) and the reverse with the figures of Lakskmi and others. An account of the various parts is given in detail. Three kinds of manjusha are described in detail. They are made of either timber or iron, and are square, rectangular, or circular in shape. They generally consist of one, two or three compartments or chambers (koshtha). The parna-manjusha looks like a box or trunk. The taila (oil) manjusha is apparently a receptacle for oil. It does not differ from the other, except in its greater height. The third kind is called vastra-manjusha and is easily identified with a wardrobe or linenchest. Its breadth is said to vary from one to three cubits, the height and length being proportionate to the breadth. The word dola means both a swing and a palanquin; but as the description opens with the statement that the height of the post or pillar (pada) varies from three to eight cubits, there can be little doubt that the passage refers to a swing. We may assume that the phalaka, which is repeatedly mentioned in this connexion, must be the swing-board. The swing is said to be used by both gods and men. The balance¹ consists of the horizontal balancing rod or beam, the strings by which the scale pans are suspended, and the scale pans. themselves. The two pans are made of iron, the rod of timber or iron, and the jihva (lit. tongue) and the torana (lit. arch) are always made of iron. The various parts of he balance are described minutely, together with their measurements. A large portion of the chapter is devoted to a description of cages (panjara). A number of birds and other animals are enumerated, and the size of the cage in which they are kept is given, the measurements 1 From the description given in the text it may be conjectured that the royal balance in question was meant to be used by kings in performing the ceremony of having themselves weighed against gold and precious stones which were afterwards distributed among the Brahmans. This ceremony, known as tula-purushadana, was performed on certain special occasions, such as the coronation, or on the day of a solar or lunar eclipse, or on New Year's day. Cf. A. H. Longhurst, The Tula-purusha-dana Monument at Hampi. Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India for 1912-13, pp. 142 sq., Plate LXXXIV. 136

admitting in each instance of nine different varicties. The following is a complete list: Mrga-nabhi-bidala (musk cat) Suka (parrot) Chataka (rains-cuckoo or cuculus melanoleucus) Chakora (partridge or perdix rufa) Marala (a crow-pheasant, a goose or duck) .. Paravata (turtledove) Nilakantha (roller) Kunjariya (ground-man) Khanjarita (wag-tail) Kukkuta (cock) Kulala (phasianus gallus) 7-23 N 21 01 " 22 " Size of cage Increment I -2 hastas 3 angulas. 9-23 angulas¹ 7-23 " 7-23 2 " .. 7-23 2 " 2 " 25-73 " 5-21 " 7-23 2 " 15-31 2 " 15-31 NNNN ON N " " 6 " .་ " " 2 " " 11-27 7-23 "" • • 9-25 2 " • • 1-3 hastas 6 0 10 10 10 2 "" " " " Nakula (mongoose, viverra ichneumon) Tittiri (francolin partridge) • Godha(ra) (alligator) Vyaghra (tiger) CHAPTER LI THE TRIAD (Trim urti-lakshana-vidhana) The Indian Triad, to which the title of the chapter refers, consists of the three great gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. The chapter may be divided into two parts. The first part deals with the materials (dravya) of which the idols of all other deities, as well as of these three, are made. The second part describes the external features of the Triad. The materials for making idols are nine, namely, gold, silver, copper (tamra), stone, wood, sudha (stucco, also mortar and plaster), sarkara (lit. gravel or grit), abhasa (glass) and earth (terra-cotta). All the materials enumerated are well known except abhasa, of which a special description is given. 1 Evidently there is a mistake here in the figures, which would yield only eight varieties of size. Another inistake seems to be in the size of cages, which in many cases is absurdly small. 137

Abhasa is subdivided into three kinds, called chitra, ardha-chitra, and abhasa proper. If it is perfectly transparent or visible (sarvangadrsyamana, lit. which can be completely seen through), it is called chitra; if only half transparent or visible, it is known as ardha-chitra ; and in case it is partially (lit. one-fourth) transparent or visible, it is called abhasa proper. The second part begins with an account of the different classes of images. An idol may be stationary (sthavara) or movable (jangama), erect, sitting, or recumbent. The movable images are used especially on the occasion of festivals. The three or four poses (bhanga), called abhanga, samabhanga, and tribhanga, are discussed more fully at the end of Chapter LXVII. The remaining portion of the chapter is devoted to a minute description of the images of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the three gods constituting the Trimurti. Brahma should have four arms and four faces. He should wear a diadem and the matted hair of an ascetic (jata-mukuta-mandita). Two of his hands should be in the gift-bestowing (varada) and refugegranting (abhaya) attitudes. The four attributes held in his hands are the water-pot (kundika), the rosary (aksha-mala), and the large and small sacrificial ladles (sruk-sruva). The various ornaments, with which his body is to be adorned, are described in great detail. As to his clothes, he is said to wear a strip of bark (chira) and an upper garment (uttariya). His whole body should be of golden colour. Brahma is accompanied by his two saktis (female energies), the goddesses Sarasvati and Savitri standing to his right and left respectively. Vishnu is also four-armed (chatur-bhuja), but has one head. His headgear is the diadem called kirita. He wears a yellow garment, while the colour of his body is dark blue (syama). His chest is adorned with the symbol called srivatsa. Two of his hands are in the giftbestowing and refuge-granting attitudes. His attributes are the lotus flower, the mace (gada), the discus (chakra), and the conch-shell called panchajanya. Among the numerous ornaments which bedeck his limbs, special mention is made of the graceful garland of wild flowers (vana-mala) which hangs down by both his legs. At the back of his head there is an ornamental nimbus (siras-chakra, lit. a head-disc). Vishnu is likewise attended by two goddesses (Sakti), apparently Lakshmi and Bhu-devi (the Earth-goddess). 138

iva, the third member of the Triad, is four-armed and is, moreover, distinguished by a third eye, which is placed in the middle of his forchead. Like Brahma, he wears the matted hair of the ascetic. The figure of Ganga (the river personified), as well as the crescent, are inserted in his headdress, the latter on the left side. On the left side of his neck there is the mark of the deadly poison kalakuta. His dress consists of a tiger skin reaching down to the knees, and a waist-cloth. His complexion is said to be red.¹ Two of his hands are in the attitude of granting a boon (vara) and of conferring security (abhaya). In the remaining two hands he holds an antelope (harina) and a tabor or hand-drum.2 Siva is accompanied by the goddess Parvati, who keeps standing or seated on his left side. Images of the three members of the Triad are said to be measured in the largest type of the dasa-tala measurement and those of their consorts in the middle type. The particulars of these two types of measurement are not discussed here, but reserved for an elaborate treatment in two separate chapters. The pedestals are also dealt with in a separate chapter. Here it is very briefly stated that the pedestals of the Triad should be of the padma-pitha or the maha-pitha kind, and be furnished with a prapa (canal), a torana (ornamental arch), and kalpa-vrksha (ornamental tree). The chapter closes with a statement that the particulars not mentioned here with regard to the making of these idols, should be supplied according to the rules of the Sastras. CHAPTER LII THE PHALLUS (Linga-vidhana)³ Various classifications of phalli are given. They are classified first into six heads-saiva, pasupata, kala-mukha, mahavrata, vama, and bhairava; secondly, into four-samakarna, vardhamana, sivanka, and 1 Elsewhere the complexion of Siva is stated to be white. 2 The name of the second attribute, which occurs also in the iconographic portion of Chapter VII, appears to be dhakka. But this word usually indicates a large kettle-drum, whereas the tabor, which is one of Siva's emblems, is called damaru. 3 The phallus worship is very popular in India: this is unmistakably proved by the fact that the number of lingas or phalli in India is estimated at thirty millions, of which the best known are Visvesvara at Benares, Somanatha in Gujarat, Mahakala at Ujjayini, etc. 139

svastika, fit to be worshipped by Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras respectively; thirdly, into four, with regard to height-jati, chhanda, vikalpa, and abhasa; fourthly, into three, with regard to width-nagara, dravida, and vesara; fifthly, into four-daivika, manusha, ganava, and arsha, the four together being called svayambhu¹ or udbhuta ; sixthly, into two-atmartha (for one's own worship), and parartha, (lit. for others, for public worship); again into two-ekalinga (single), and bahu-linga (phalli in a group); or into many-vajra, suvarna, etc., with regard to the material; and lastly into the kshanika (for temporary worship) class as constrasted with the permanent ones. All these kinds of phalli are described at great length. Various alternative measurements are prescribed for each of them. In some cases as many as thirty-six alternative heights are suggested. But in most cases their number is nine. The nine alternative heights of the phallus are determined in some cases by a comparison with different parts of the body of the worshipper (pajamana). The height of the phallus may reach the worshipper's sex organ, navel, heart, breast, arm-joint (bahu-simanta), chin, nose, eye, or be equal to his full length. Another comparative measurement is given with regard to the garbha-griha (the cella of the temple in which the phallus is enshrined). Various absolute measurements also are given in some cases. These measurements vary according to the four classes, jati, chhanda, vikalpa, and abhasa, mentioned above. In the jati class the height may vary from 1 to 9 cubits (hasta), the increment being 1 hasta. The chhanda class admits of nine varieties, namely, from 6 cubits, the increment in this case being hasta. In the third class (vikalpa) the hight varies from 1 to 4 hastas with increments of hasta, and in the fourth class (abhasa) from 1 to 2 hastas with incre ments of ¦ hasta. Thus cach of the four said classes admits of nine varieties of height. The breadth of the phallus is in like manner discussed at great length. The utility of so many alternative measurements is discussed in connexion with the application of the rules of ayadi-shadvarga described in detail at the end of the chapter. to The second part deals with the pitha, which is the stand upon which the phallus proper is placed. The pranala (lit. canal, drain) or The term swayambhu (self-existent, self-created) indicates natural objects of worship. Such svayambhu-lingas are even to this day worshipped at several tirthas of Kashmir. Cf. Kalhana's Rajatarangini, a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir translated by M. A. Stein, Vol. 1, p. 22 (note 1, 113). 140

yonidvara, and all other parts of the pitha are described n detail, together with their measurements. The same subject is discussed in greater detail in the next chapter. The general appearance of a phallus is well known; the Manasara does not deviate much from it. The mula or the lower part, technically called Brahma-bhaga is square (chatur-asra, lit. four-cornered), whereas the middle part, called Vishnubhaga, is octagonal (ashtagrabha), and the upper part, called Siva-bhaga, is round. But these shapes of the three parts may be interchanged in some cases. The top is sometimes shaped like a bud (kudmala) or a leaf (pattra).¹ The phallus proper and the pitha are generally made of the same material. But when they are made of very precious substances, such as jewels, gold, etc., the material of the two may differ. The pitha is mostly made of marbles of various colours such as white, red, yellow, black, etc. Precious stones are inserted in the different parts of the phallus. The chapter closes with an account of the various fruits to be derived from phallus worship, and of the formulas of the ayadi-shadvarga. CHAPTER LIII THE ALTAR (Pitha-laksha na-vidhana) It has been pointed out in the previous chapter that the pitha² forms the yoni or the lower part of the phallus. The pitha must match the phallus, of which it forms the lower member. There must, consequently, be as many kinds of pithas as there are of the phalli. But the mouldings of the pitha are described under four classes, technically called, bhadra-pitha, sribhadra, srivisala, and upapitha. The principal parts of the pitha are the nala (lit. canal), the jala-dhara (lit. drain), the ghrta-vari, the nimna, and the pattika. These appear to have been intended to represent the various parts of which an ordinary yoni (female organ) is formed. The name of the principal mouldings are the following prathama or janman, padma, kshepana, kandhara, kampa, urdhva-padma, vajana, ghrta-vari, and vrtta-kumbha. 1 A variant reading gives chhattra (an umbrella). * 2 The term pitha' means a stool, seat, chair, throne, pedestal, an altar. The well-known fifty-one pitha-sthanas are the sacred spots where the parts of the body of Sati (Parvati), the consort of Siva, fell after she had been cut to pieces by the discus of Vishnu. As the linga or phallus symbolically represents Siva, so the pitha does his consort Parvati. 141

A minute description and measurement of all these and other mouldings of pithas of various kinds are given in detail. With regard to their shape, the pithas, like the phalli (and, in fact, all other architectural and sculptural objects), are divided into three types, nagara, dravida, and vesara. The pithas of the nagara class are said to be square, those of the dravida type are octagonal, and the vesara ones are round (vrtta). Chapter LIV THE FEMALE DEITIES (Sakti-lakshana-vidhana) The following female deities are specially described: Sarasvati, the goddess of learning; Savitri ; Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth or fortune; Mahi, the Earth-goddess; Manonmani, the goddess of love; Durga; and the Seven Mothers (Sapta-matr) collectively so called. Of these, Lakshmi is distinguished into Maha (great) Lakshmi, and Samanya (ordinary) Lakshmi, the latter being installed in all the family chapels. The Seven Mothers consist of Varahi, Kaumari, Chamundi, Bhairavi, Mahendri, Vaishnavi, and Brahmani. These seven goddesses are measured in the nava-tala system, and all other female deities in the dasa-tala system. The details of these measurements are discussed in two separate chapters, wherein the comparative measurements of the several parts of the various limbs of the body are given. It may be pointed out here that, according to the dasa-tala system, the whole length of the body is ten times the face, while in the nava-tala, it is nine times, and hence in the ashta-tala it should be eight times the face, and so forth. The characteristic attributes and poses, and the ornaments, decorations, etc., of each of these female deities are described in detail. The goddess Sarasvati is represented as seated on a lotus-seat. Her complexion is white like crystal. She is four-armed; in her two right hands she holds a samdarsa¹ and a rosary (aksha-mala), and in her two left hands a book (pustaka) and a water-pot (kundika). There exists, however, also a two-handed variety of the Sarasvati image. Her ornaments, which are described in detail, include earpendants of the type called graha-kundala (makara-kundala). 1 Should we read it adarsa (mirror) ? The regular attribute of Sarasvati, however, is the lute (vina). 142

avitri, who is seated on a lotus-seat to the left of Brahma, may be pink (white red, sveta-rakta) or dark blue (syama). She has two arms and two eyes, in other words she assumes a purely human shape. She holds a blue lotus flower (utpala) in her right hand, while her left hand is stretched out in the pose of granting a boon (vara). Savitri, too, is adorned with various ornaments. Lakshmi, the goddess of good fortune, looks benign (prasannavadana); her complexion is pure gold. She has four arms. Her upper right hand is raised in the attitude of granting security (abhaya), and in her other right hand she holds either a red lotus flower (padma) or a rosary. The attributes held in her left hands are a tabor or hand-drum (dindima) and a blue or red lotus flower. As befits the goddess of luck, she is bedecked with gorgeous ornaments and jewels. In contradistinction with the Great Lakshmi (Maha-Lakshmi) thus described, the ordinary Lakshmi is said to have only two hands in cach of which she holds a red lotus flower (rakta-padma). Her distinguishing feature is that she is placed between two elephants with uplifted trunks. A brief account is given about representations of Lakshmi as the spouse of Vishnu. The Earth-goddess (Mahi-sakti), who is placed on the other side of Vishnu, is said to be two-armed and two-eyed. In her right hand she holds a blue lotus (utpala) ; with her left hand she indicates the granting of a gift. She has a dark blue (syama) complexion and wears makara ear-rings. Durga, also called Gauri and Parvati, the consort of Siva, is two-armed. She holds a blue lotus in her right hand and her left hand is in the pose of granting a gift (vara). She is distinguished by all the marks of female beauty and is profusely adorned with ornaments. She has a dark blue (syama) complexion and wears yellow garments. She is placed to the left of Siva, or of his symbol, the linga. Manonmani(?), the goddess of love, is four-armed and three-eyed. Strange to say, her hair-dress is said to be the matted hair (jata) of an ascetic. Two of her hands are in the attitude of assuming protection (abhaya) and of granting a boon (vara). In each of the two other hands she holds a lotus flower. Her complexion is pink (red white, sveta-rakta) or dark blue (syama). It appears that this Sakti also is reckoned as belonging to the retinue of Siva, in whose temple she is worshipped. 143

Finally, the Seven Mothers are described. In general these Saktis have the same emblems and distinguishing features as their male counterparts. Brahmani and Rudrani, for instance, who are the Saktis of Brahma and Rudra (or Siva) respectively wear the matted hair of the ascetics. Brahmani has four faces and four hands, in two of which she holds a rosary (aksha-mala) and a water-pot (kundika). Rudrani has a white complexion, her attributes are the antelope (harina) and the noose (pasa). Vaishnavi and Varahi, who are both Saktis of Vishnu, are distinguished by a dark blue (syama) complexion and hold the discus (chakra) and conch-shell (sankha) which are the well-known emblems of Vishnu. Varahi has a boar's head. The chapter closes with a very brief reference to the plumblines which are more fully treated in a separate chapter. CHAPTER LV THE JAIN IMAGES (Jaina-lakshana-vidhana) The opening lines describe in detail the various kinds of measurements used in Indian sculpture. The linear measurement is divided into six kinds, mana, pramana, parimana, lamba-mana, unmana, and upamana. The measurement from the foot to the top of the head is called mana, which is in fact nothing but height. Pramana is the measurement of breadth (vistara); parimana is the measurement of girth or circumference (paritah); lamba-mana is the measurement along the plumb-line or the line drawn perpendicularly through the different parts of the body, the mana or the measurement of the height being determined by the surface of the body; unmana is the measurement of thickness (nimna) or diameter; and upamana is the measurement of interspace (antara), such as that between the two feet of an image ; this measurement is evidently taken from one plumb-line to another. The primary measurement (adi-mana) refers to comparative measurement and is divided into nine kinds. The height of an image is determined firstly, by comparing it with the breadth (tara) of the whole temple (harmya); secondly, with the height of the cella or sanctum (garbha-griha); thirdly, with the height of the door (dvaramana); fourthly, with the measurement of the base (adhishthana) ; fifthly, by expressing it in cubit (hasta); sixthly, in the tala system; 144

seventhly, in angulas; eighthly, by comparing it with the height of the worshipper; and ninthly, with the height of the riding-animal (vahana) or with the height of the principal idol (mula-bera). Absolute measurement in cubits (hasta), etc. is given in the case of many architectural and sculptural objects. The angula (lit. finger) measurement has reference to both comparative and absolute measurements. Three kinds of angulas are expressly distinguished, and a fourth angula is added later. (a) The berangula is the measurement taken by the angula or finger of the main idol. (b) The manangula refers to the ordinary absolute measurement in angulas, one angula being equal to eight yavas (barley grains) or three-quarters of an English inch. (c) The matrangula is the measurement determined by the length of the digit and the width of the middle finger in the right hand of the master (kartr). (d) Another kind of angula measurement is determined by dividing the whole length of the body of an image into a number of equal parts, each of which is called a deha-labdhangula or simply dehangula. In the last sense, angula is used to mean simply a part. Thus both angula and part (amsa, matra) are indiscriminately used throughout the work. If the length, etc., of a building or image is divided into a number of equal parts for some special purpose, each of them is called angula, amsa, or matra indiscriminately. This lack of discrimination has been very confusing in many places, rendering it extremely hard to distinguish an absolute measurement from a comparative one. The height of the image is determined by comparing it with the height of the worshipper (yajamana). It may be of nine kinds, according as it extends from the foot of the worshipper to his sex-organ, navel, heart, breast, arms, chin, tip of the nose, hair limit (on the forehead), or to his full height. The talamana admits of many varieties; the ten-tala measurements vary from one tala to ten tala; cach of these is again divided into three types, the uttama or the largest, the madhyama or the intermediate, and the adhama or the smallest. Thus an image is of the dasa-tala measurement when its whole length, is equal to ten times the face. In the largest type of the dasa-tala system, the whole length is divided into 124 equal parts, which are proportionately distributed over the different limbs of the body; in 145 j

the intermediate type, the whole length is divided into 120 equal parts and in the smallest type, into 116 equal parts. In the nava-tala system, the whole length would be nine times the face; in the ashta-tala, eight times; and so forth. Several of these tala measures are described in detail in the subsequent chapters. The varieties of the alternative measurements in each case are simplified by the application of the rules of ayadi-shad-varga. The main object of the chapter, namely, the description of the Jain deities, is thus submerged in a lengthy discussion of the various measurements used both in architecture and sculpture. Like all other idols, the images of Jain deities, too, may be stationary or movable; they may be in the erect or in the sitting posture. They have a purely human shape, and wear neither robes nor ornaments. On the chest the srivatsa symbol is marked in gold. They are placed on a throne decorated with the makara-torana, and the ornamental tree (kalpa-vrksha), and are attended by Narada and other sages, by Yakshas, Vidyadharas, Siddhas, Nagendras, and Lokapalas, etc. All these attendants, it should be observed, are also known as Hindu deities. The twenty-four Tirthankaras, or Jain saints, are referred to but not specified.1 CHAPTER LVI THE BUDDHIST IMAGES (Bauddha-laksha na-vidhana) The account of these images, too, is very meagre. Evidently the author had in mind solely the effigies of Buddha, not of other Buddhist deities. This is clear from his description. These figures, he says, which may be either crect or in the sitting posture, are placed on a throne (simhasana), and are distinguished by the asvattha (holy fig) tree as well as by the kalpa-vrksha (mythic wonder-tree). The latter, as we have seen, is represented in connexion with other divine beings as well, but the asvattha or ficus religiosa is characteristic of Buddha, as the Bodhi-tree, under which he attained enlightenment (bodhi), belongs to that species. Another peculiar mark of Buddha, which 1 Cf. James Burgass, Digambara Jaina Iconography, Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXII, pp. 459 sqq., for the full list of the Jain Saints; see also the writer's Encyclopaedia of Indian Architecture. 146

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PLATE XXXIV(a) Carvings at Amaravati STUPA Page 146

has been duly noted by the author, is the ushnisha or protuberance of the skull (ushnishojjvala-maulika).¹ For the rest, the appearance of Buddha is purely human. He has a full face, a long nose, smiling eyes and clongated ears. His body is fleshy, his chest broad, his belly round, and his arms long. He wears a yellow garment (pitambara-dhara), and his complexion is white. Like other idols, the Buddha images are made of wood, stone, or iron (loha). They are mcasured according to the largest type of the dasa-tala system. CHAPTER LVII IMAGES OF SAGES (Muni-lakshana-vidhana) The seven well-known patriarchs or sages (rishi or muni) are taken to illustrate the three varieties of the tala measurement. They are Agastya, Kasyapa, Bhrigu, Vasishtha, Bhargava, Visvamitra, and Bharadvaja. Agastya is bright blue (syama) in colour; Kasyapa, yellow (pita); Bhrigu, dark or black (krishna); Vasishtha, red (rakta); Bhargava, brownish (pingala); Visvamitra, red (rakta); and Bharadvaja, yellow (haridra, lit. turmeric-coloured). They are represented in a purely human shape, being two-armed and two-eyed; they wear yellow garments and the sacred thread (yajna-sutra), and are distinguished by the matted hair of the ascetics (jatajuta). In their two hands. they hold a staff (danda) and a book (pustaka). Of Agastya, who is mentioned first among the seven sages, it is stated particularly that he is corpulent (brhatkukshi) and hump-backed (kubjakara). Of these seven sages, Agastya is measued in the seven-tala, Kasyapa and Bhrigu in the eight-tala, and the rest in the ninetala. The details of these three tala measurements are given subsequently. In the sapta- or seven-tala measurement, the whole length of the image is seven times the height of the face, which is generally twelve angulas (9 inches) in the Indian system. This length is divided into 12*7 84 equal parts, of which the proportional distribution among the different limbs is explained at great length. 1 The urna, or mark between the brows, which is another distinguishing feature of Buddha, is not noticed in the course of this description. 147

In the ashta- or eight-tala system, the whole length is similarly divided into 96 equal parts, and in the nine-tala into 108 equal parts. CHAPTER LVIII IMAGES OF YAKSHAS, VIDYADHARAS, ETC. (Yaksha-vidyadhara-vidhana) The present chapter deals briefly with four classes of semi-divine beings, namely, Yakshas, Vidyadharas, Gandharvas, and Kinnaras. They are said to have two arms and two eyes, in other words, they assume a purely human appearance. They are adorned with the crown known by the name of karanda. The colour of the Yakshas is stated to be dark blue (syama) and yellow (pita), that of the Vidyadharas dark red (syama-rakta) and yellow. The images, both of the Yakshas and the Vidyadharas, are measured according to the nava-tala system. The Yakshas are distinguished from the Rakshasas, the latter being evil spirits, while the former are regarded as supernatural beings of a benevolent and inoffensive disposition. The Yakshas act as attendants (anuchara) and chowry-bearers of the gods. The Vidyadharas are a kind of fairies possessed of magical powers. Here, apparently, they are described as Atlantes. The Gandharvas are celestial choirs, and celebrated as musicians. * The description of the Kinnaras is contained in a Malini stanza at the end of the chapter: The legs are like those of an animal, the upper part of the body is like that of a man, the face is like that of Garuda (the bird of Vishnu), and the arms are provided with wings. He is adorned with a diadem and a red lotus, has the beautiful huc of a flower, and holds a lute (vina). These are the characteristic features of the Kinnara. ¹ CHAPTER LIX IMAGES OF DEVOTEES (Bhakta-lakshana-vidhana) Devotees are divided into four classes according to the four stages of holiness and are called salokya, samipya, sarupya, and sayujya.2 1 It may be noticed that the body of the Kinnara is a combination of the bodies of a man, an animal, and a bird. 2 The salokyadi-chatushtaya is also mentioned in the Bhagavata-purana, IX, 4, 67. The literal meaning of the four terms in question is: dwelling in the same world (viz. as the deity), dwelling in the vicinity (of the deity), being in conformity with (the deity), and being united with (the deity). 148

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alokya is the result of devotion (bhakti), knowledge (jnana), and renunciation (vairagya). Knowledge combined with renunciation leads to samipya. Sarupya is produced in the worshipper by meditation alone, and sayujya is attained by the true knowledge (of God). The images of the salokya class of worshippers are measured in the largest type of the nava-tala system, in which the whole length is divided into 112 equal parts. Those of the samipya class are measured in the smallest type of the dasa-tala system, in which the whole length is divided into 116 equal parts. Those of the saruppa class are measured in the intermediate type of the dasa-tala system, in which the whole length is divided into 120 equal parts. And the figures of the sayujya class are measured in the largest type of the daja-tala system, in which the whole length is divided into 124 equal parts. The first two systems, namely, the largest type of the nava-tala and the smallest type of the dasa-tala, are minutely described in this chapter. The other two systems, that is, the intermediate and the largest types of the dasa-tala, are treated subsequently in two separate chapters. CHAPTER LX RIDING ANIMALS OF THE GODS: THE Goose (Fahana-vidhane Hamsa-lakshana) The chapter opens with the announcement tha! the vahanas of the Triad (Trimurti) will now be described. But only one of them, namely, the Goose (hamsa), is described in this chapter, the other three, the Garuda, the Bull, and the Lion being described in the next three chapters. In these four chapters, the term vahana is used to designate the various animals and birds used by the gods and goddesses for riding. The goose is the vahana of Brahma. The limbs of the goose are said to be measured in the largest type of the dvi-tala system. The details of this system are described minutely. The goose is white all over, with red legs and golden beak. The chapter closes with the statement that row of geese should be beautifully carved or painted in the temples of the gods and in the 149

mansions of Brahmans and kings; they are figured on the entablature (prastara), on the upper part of the uttara, on the kuta, nida, and griva (neck). CHAPTER LXI THE GARUDA (Garuda-lakshana-vidhana)¹ The chapter opens with a lengthy discussion on the application of the rules of ayadi-shad-varga, in order to reconcile various comparative measurements suggested for the Garuda and other riding animals of the gods. Garuda is the vahana of Vishnu. His limbs are measured in the nava-tala system, the details of which are given in a previous chapter. He is figured in an erect or sitting posture, and as meditating on Vishnu with joined palms. The arrangement of his various limbs and their colour, etc., are described at great length. The Garuda is figured partly as a human creature and partly as a bid. He is provided with feathers, with wings painted in five colours, and with a beak (tunda); but, on the other hand, the description refers to his arms (prakoshtha), his ears, and hair (kesa). He wears various ornaments (sarvalankara-samyukta), including a diadem of the kind called karanda (lit. a basket), and is gorgeously painted in a great variety of colours. He is described as being of a terrific appearance (ugradrs). His worship is stated to be conducive to the destruction of the enemy (satru-nasa). CHAPTER LXII THE BULL (Vrishabha-lakshana-vidhana) The bull, Nandin,2 is the animal of Siva. Its image, which may be either recumbent or erect, is placed facing the Siva temple on 1 The Garuda is a mythical bird, the sovereign of the feathered tribes and the enemy of the serpent (Naga) race. There is a tradition that Garuda is the son of Kasyapa and Vinata. Hence the metronymic Vainateya, by which he is often designated. The myth of the birth of Garuda is told in the Mahabharata, Adi-parva, Chapter XVI. 2 The image of the bull Nandin is regularly found in front of temples dedicated to Siva. A well-known example is the colossal recumbent bull, placed opposite to the famous vimana of Tanjore. It is hewn out of one block of black granite and measures 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. A remarkable bronze Nandin, which is found at Brahmor (Chamba) in the Western Himalaya and which, on the evidence of an inscription, may be assigned to the seventh century A.D., is illustrated in the Antiquities of Chamba State (Archaeological Survey of India, New Imp. Series, Vol. XXXVI, Part 1, Plate X). 150

pedestal (pitha), either inside the shrine, or in a pavilion (mandapa) in front of the temple, or at the door. It is not measured in any tala system. Various absolute and comparative measurements are prescribed. Its height, for instance, may be equal to the height of the idol (of Siva), or up to its ears or arms, or the height may be from one cubit to nine cubits, or equal to three-fourths or one-half of the height of the door of the temple. The bull Nandin is made either solid or hollow, of iron (lauhaja), stone, wood, abhasa (glass), ratna (precious stone), sudha (stucco), terra-cotta, and sarkara (grit). The description and measurements of the various limbs of the bull are given in great detail. From the description it would appear that the bull of Siva is white in colour except the four legs, the hoofs, and the cars, which are red. He is covered with a tiger skin and wears not only garlands round the neck but even foot-rings or anklets (nupura). CHAPTER LXIII THE LION (Simha-lakshana-vidhana) The lion is the last of the four divine vahanas, to which a chapter is devoted.¹ As in the case of the bull, the image of the lion is not measured in any tala system. The absolute measurements of the various parts of the lion, expressed in angulas, are enumerated. The lion is made in an erect, sitting, or recumbent posture. His tail is generally equal to his height. His four legs are like those of the tiger. His colour is white, but his mane should be red. The shape of his nails and teeth is compared to that of the crescent (bala-chandra, ardha-chandra). CHAPTER LXIV THE IMAGE (Pratima-vidhana) This chapter, which is missing in all the manuscripts but one, opens with the announcement that herein will briefly be described At the beginning of the chapter (and again in the concluding verse) the lion is loosely indicated as 'the riding animal of the gods' (devanam vahana). It is, however, well known that the lion (or the tiger) is more particularly the animal of Parvati, the consort of Siva. It is hardly necessary to point out that of the other deities, both male and female, each, as a rule, has his or her own vahana, e.g. Karttikeya, the peacock; Ganesa, the mouse; Indra, the elephant; Yama, the buffalo; Surya, a chariot drawn by seven horses; Varuna, a crocodile (makara); Kubera, a man (whence his epithet nara-vahana), etc. 151

the measurements from head to foot of the sixteen attendant deities of the Vishnu temple. It will be remembered that in Chapter XXXII on attendant deities' (Parivara-vidhana), groups of eight, ten, sixteen, and thirty-two deities have been mentioned, who are stated to occupy subsidiary shrines in the compound of a large Vishnu temple. But the contents of the chapter, in reality, do not expressly describe any of the groups of deities in question. The first part deals with the various kinds of comparative mea urements already discussed at the beginning of Chapter LV on the Jain deities. The second part claborately describes the rules of the ayadi-shad-varga, which have been repeatedly mentioned whenever a variety of measurements was suggested for any particular object. The comparative measurement is distinguished into twelve kinds, according as it is compared with the phallus, the main Vishnu image, the width of the sanctum (garbha-griha), the breadth of the main temple (harmya, prasada), the door, flagstaff (vamsa), basement, pillar; or is based on cubit (hasta) measurement, tala-mcasurement, the measurement of the worshipper, and angula measurement. The angula is further distinguished, as already pointed out, into three kinds; namely, lingangula or berangula; the manangula, viz. angula of cight yavas or three-quarters of an inch, and the dehalabdha-angula, viz. one of the equal parts into which the whole length of an image is divided. The measurement obtained from a comparison with the height of the main idol or the worshipper is of nine kinds, as it may reach the full length (of the idol or the worshipper), his eyes, nostrils, chin, arms, breast, heart, navel, and sex organ. Other measurements obtained from a comparison with the phallus, and various parts of the temple, such as the door, the pillar, etc., admit of many varieties and proportions. chapter LXV THE LARGEST TYPE OF THE DASA-TALA MEASUREMENT (Uttama-dasa-tala-vidhana) In this system the whole length of an image is divided into 124 equal parts, which are proportionately distributed over the different parts of the body from head to foot. The measurement of breadth, 152

etc., of the various limbs is not included in these 124 parts. The measurement of the hand, etc., is also excluded. All the numerous parts of the body are minutely described. Such minute measurement as that of the finger-digit, the interspace between two toes, etc., has not escaped the notice of the author of the Manasara. CHAPTER LXVI THE INTERMEDIATE TYPE OF THE DASA-TALA MEASUREMENT (Madhyama-dasa-tala-vidhana) The female deities of the higher order are generally measured in this system. The whole height of the image is divided into 120 equal parts, which are proportionately distributed over the various parts of the body from head to foot. The details are minutely described. The face is taken as the standard of the tala measurement, and is generally twelve angulas, or about nine inches, in length. The face is stated to be of oval shape (kukkutanda-samakara, lit. shaped like the egg of a hen). The eyebrow is shaped like the bow (chapakara), the eyes like a fish (matsyakara), the nose like the sesame flower (tilapushpakrti), and the nostrils (puta) like a bean (nishpava-bija). According to both Indian and European canons, a well proportioned male human figure is equal to eight times (ashta-tala) the length of the face, and a female human figure is seven and a half times the length of the face. The other rules arrived at by the Indian artist do not appear to be divergent from those evolved by the European artist, and if in Indian sculpture the results are not good in some instances, it is the fault of the artist and not attributable to the guide book."1 CHAPTER LXVII THE PLUMB-LINES (Pralamba-lakshana-vidhana) The plumb-lines, as has already been pointed out, are lines drawn through the body of an image in order to find out accurately the perpendicular and the horizontal measurements of the different parts of the body. This is done by means of an instrument called pralamba-phalaka, which is a square plank of four, three, two, or one angula in thickness, 1 T. A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography; see p. 156, and the writer's Encyclopaedia for further details under Talamana. 153

with the sides equal to three-fourths or one-half of the length of the image. Another plank of the same size is used as the stool on which the image is placed. The first mentioned plank (pralamba-phalaka) is fixed to the crown of the head of the image. The planks are kept parallel to each other. Holes are made in the upper plank, wherefrom are suspended strings at the other end of which are attached small balls of iron or stone. The number of holes and strings suspended from them, by which the plumb-lines are determined, varies from five to eleven, according to the different postures and poses of the image. The five principal plumb-lines consist of one drawn from the centre of the upper plank corresponding to the crown of the head, and four on the four sides of the body. Two other lines drawn adjoining the right and left sides of the face make the number seven. Another two lines drawn on the right and left sides of the back of the head make the number nine, and two lines drawn from the two armpits make the total of the lines cleven. The line drawn from the crown of the head (sikha-mani, lit. crest jewel) passes by the diadem and the headdress, the middle of the forehead, the cyebrows, the nose, the chin, the neck, the chest. (hrdaya), the navel, the sex organ, the thighs, between the knees, the ankles (nalaka), the heels, the soles of the feet, and the two big toes. This is evidently drawn along the surface of the body in a perfectly erect or straight posture of the image. The other plumblines, too, touch different parts of the body; but they are not particularly mentioned here. Very minutely are described the comparative and the absolute measurements of the perpendicular distance between different parts of the body by a plumb-line, as well as the horizontal distance from one line to another. The distance, say, between the two big toes, is said to be eight angulas. The variation of these measurements in different postures and poses is carefully considered. The three postures of images, namely, erect or standing (sthanaka), sitting (asana), and recumbent (sayana), are frequently mentioned in the Manasara.¹ 1 Each of these three, of course, admits of a variety. The sitting posture (asana) is in particular distinguished into various forms in Indian literature and sculpture, such as the padmasana, bhadrasana, vajrasana, vi.asana, svastikasana, yogasana, etc. In some books, even cighty-four postures are enumerated. These manners of sitting form part of the eight-fold observances of ascetics. 154

n the present chapter a special reference is made to the three bhangas or poses which are distinguished in Indian sculpture. They are known as sama-bhanga or equipoise, abhanga or a slight flexion, ati-bhanga or an excessive flexion, and tri-bhanga or of three flexions.1 CHAPTER LXVIII THE FIRST CASTING OF THE IMAGE (Madhuchchhishta-vidhana) The chapter opens with an enumeration of the names of phalli and asceties (muni), as well as of architects, 2 but the subject proper is the casting of an image in wax (madhuchchhishta). The sthapati and the sthapaka prepare the wax, but the manner of its preparation is not expressly described. All kinds of images, temporary or permanent, stationary or movable, are moulded in wax. The process appears to be this. Some part of the image is covered with a thin copper-leaf (tamra-patra) and the wax is laid on two or three angulas deep. Earth (mrttika) is spread above the part covered with wax. The idol is heated after it has been besmeared. If the master likes, the smearing may be done with melted iron too. One-half of the image, which is not covered with earth, is washed in water. The process is repeated several times. If any of the minor limbs be lost through this process, the image should be furnished with it again after having been heated. But if the head or the middle of the body (madhyakaya) be damaged, the whole image should be changed. If the master does not approve of the image, it should be recast. The whole process in its different stages has to be attended by many ritualistic ceremonies. 1 The expression tri-bhanga (and tri-bhangin) is applied to Krishna in his aspect of the divine cow-herd (Gopala) playing the reed-pipe. Cf. Een onbekend Indisch tooneelstuk (Gopalakeli-chandrika). Tekst met inleiding door W. Calland. (Verhand. Kon. Akad. v. Wetensch, te Amsterdam N. R. Dl. XVII, No. 3. Amsterdam 1917, p. 46, 1. 1 (marakata-vibhangojjvala-tri-bhanganga-gopalena) and p. 124, 132 (tri-bhangin). 2 The six kinds of phalli (jyotir-linga) enumerated here are: saiva, pasupata, kalamukha, mahavrata, vama (na) and bhairava. Cf. above, where the fifth class is called vama. The names of the munis are Agastya, Kasyapa, Bhrigu, Gautama, Bhargava, Galava (?Garga), etc., cf. above. The expert authorities on architecture are the following: Visvakarman, Visvesa, Visvasara, Prabodhaka, Vrita, Maya, Tvashtri, Manu, Nala, Manavit, Manakalpa, Manasara, Prashiri, Manabodha, Visvabodha, Naya, Adisara, Visala, Visvakasyapa, Vastubodha, Mahatantra, Vastuvidyapati, Parasariyaka, Kalayupa, Chaitya, Chitraka, Avarya, Sadhakasara-samhita, Bhanu, Indra, Lokajna, and Saura. 155

In other texts the process of casting an image is much more clearly described: 'If images have to be cast in metal, the wax must first be melted and poured (out of the mould) and all defects removed with cloth."¹ 'If the images be required to be made of earth, rods (of metal or wood) must be (inserted in them), if of metal, they must first be prepared well in wax." 'If an image is to be made of metal, it must first be made of wax, and then coated with carth; gold and other metals are purified and cast into (the mould) and a complete image is thus obtained by capable workmen."³ € 'In regard to bronze images,' says Mr. Rao, it is believed by some that India could not have known the cire perdue method of making metal images earlier than about the tenth century A.D., and that India must have therefore borrowed it from Europe. That the art of casting metals in wax moulds is much carlier in India can be shewn in more ways than one.' In support of his assertion, Mr. Rao cites the three above-mentioned quotations. CHAPTER LXIX THE DEFECTS OF THE LIMBS (anga-dushana-vidhana) The chapter opens with the announcement that it will describe the evil consequences of a defective construction of buildings, which threaten the king, the kingdom, and the maker. It is laid down that no part of a building should be larger or smaller than what is prescribed. But nothing is further stated about the defects themselves. Nor are images separately mentioned. The penalties for defective construction are enumerated with regard to the different architectural members, such as doors, staircases, columns, walls, domes, spires, etc. Thus, it is stated that, if the altar (vedika) be too small, the master will lose his eyesight; if the pinnacle (stupika) be too large or too small, the people will be afflicted with poverty; if the columns be too large or too small, the family of the master will be exterminated, and so forth. 1 Karanagama, II, V, 41. 3 Vishnu-samhita, patala, 14. 2 4 Suprabhedagama, XXXIV, 21. Ibid, Elements of Hindu Iconography. 156

o such penalties, however, are mentioned for defects in sculptural objects. CHAPTER LXX THE CHISELLING OF THE EYE (Nayanonmilana-lakshana-vidhana) When the Indian sculptor has carved a divine image, the ceremony of chiselling (lit. opening) the eyes of the idol is the final function, by which it is, as it were, imparted with eyesight and rendered fit to be worshipped. The custom is quite ritualistic, although it is stated here that it should be carried out by the architect. The ceremonies consist in the worshipping of different deities, in performing the sacrifice with the holy fire, and in the ratna-suddhi (lit. purifying the jewel), etc. The setting of precious stones in the different parts of the phallus and in the images of the deities is also described in the present chapter. This last chapter of the work closes with the statement that this science of architecture and sculpture was originally described by Brahma, Indra, and all the other gods, and that the Manasara has been compiled on the basis of these authorities. It will be noticed that of the seventy chapters of the Manasara the first cight are introductory, the next forty-two deal with architectural matters, and the last twenty are devoted to sculpture. In the introductory chapters full accounts are given of such preliminary matters as the table of contents, the system of measurement, the necessary training and qualifications of the different classes of architects, the selection of site, testing of soil, planning, designing, dialling, finding out cardinal points, and astronomical and astrological calculations. Next are given all the architectural details of various kinds of villages, towns, and forts; joinery, dimensions and foundations of buildings; pillars and their component parts, such as pedestals, bases, shafts, and entablatures; storeys varying from one to twelve in ordinary buildings and to seventeen in gate-houses; the artistic arrangement of mansions in as many as ten rows; compounds and courts of edifices, their gate-houses, their attached and detached buildings, their compartments, halls and chambers, their doors, windows and the openings; the steps and staircases for buildings, hills and 157

rivers, etc.; their courtyards, quadrangles, and arches; royal courts, palaces, thrones, and crowns; cars, chariots, and other conveyances ; articles of furniture, such as bedsteads, couches, tables, chairs, wardrobes, baskets, cages, mills, lamps; dresses and garments; and ornaments, such as various chains, armlets, anklets, head-gear and footwear. In the concluding portion are given the sculptural details of idols of deities of the Hindus, the Buddhists, and the Jains, statues of great personages, and images of animals and birds. Thus it may be concluded that, as a standard work on architecture in the widest sense of the term, the Manasara is perfectly complete and methodical in all respects. 158