Grahya, Grāhya: 24 definitions
Introduction:
Grahya means something in Buddhism, Pali, Hinduism, Sanskrit, the history of ancient India, Marathi, Hindi. If you want to know the exact meaning, history, etymology or English translation of this term then check out the descriptions on this page. Add your comment or reference to a book if you want to contribute to this summary article.
Alternative spellings of this word include Grahm.
In Hinduism
Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य).—The eclipsed body. Note: Grāhya is a Sanskrit technical term used in ancient Indian sciences such as Astronomy, Mathematics and Geometry.
Jyotisha (ज्योतिष, jyotiṣa or jyotish) refers to ‘astronomy’ or “Vedic astrology” and represents the fifth of the six Vedangas (additional sciences to be studied along with the Vedas). Jyotisha concerns itself with the study and prediction of the movements of celestial bodies, in order to calculate the auspicious time for rituals and ceremonies.
Shaktism (Shakta philosophy)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to “placed” (e.g., ‘that which is placed within the heart’), according to the Kulakaulinīmata verse 4.136-140.—Accordingly, “The goddess Nityā is always white and, completely full, resides in the circle of the moon. She is adorned with a rosary of crystal and a book. She is in the middle of a forest of Kadamba trees and enters into one’s own body. The principle (over which she presides) is between the vital breath and is located above (Śiva) the Tranquil One. One should repeat it along with emission at the beginning and end of the Vidyā. One should make it enter with the force of a river carrying along with it all the scriptures. Once placed within the heart (hṛd-grāhya-antargata), one becomes the Lord of Speech himself. He knows all that is made of speech and contemplates the principle which is the meaning of all written prose. O great goddess! By reciting it a 100,000 times a man becomes a (great) poet”.
Shakta (शाक्त, śākta) or Shaktism (śāktism) represents a tradition of Hinduism where the Goddess (Devi) is revered and worshipped. Shakta literature includes a range of scriptures, including various Agamas and Tantras, although its roots may be traced back to the Vedas.
Shaiva philosophy
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to the “apprehended object”, according to the Īśvarapratyabhijñāvivṛtivimarśinī 2.131:—“[...] For the former [i.e., Ṣaḍdhātusamīkṣā] acknowledge that ordinary human practice is accounted for if this much [is admitted]: the five elements and consciousness, because such other [things as] the sense organs are included in these; whereas the latter admit that the ordinary human practice [consisting in the relationship between] an apprehending [subject] and an apprehended [object] (grāhya) is accounted for if a particular transformation called ‘consciousness’ arises in the four elements from [some of their] various combinations, and if this transformation does not arise [from other combinations of the four elements]”.
Shaiva philosophy is a spritiual tradition within Hinduism that includes theories such as the relationship between the Atman (individual soul) and Siva, the nature of liberation (moksha), and the concepts of maya (illusion) and shakti (divine energy). Saiva philosophy teaches that union with Shiva can be achieved through knowledge, devotion, and spiritual practice. It encompasses major branches like Shaiva Siddhanta and Kashmir Shaivism.
Yoga (school of philosophy)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to “that which should be cognized” (by the mind of a Yogin), according to the Viṣṇudharma verse 96.28cd-29ab.—Accordingly, while teaching the attainment of non-duality the practice of Yoga: “When the [mind] has ceased because of the power of Yoga, cognition of Brahma arises [for the Yogin]. The supreme Brahma should be cognized (grāhya) by the mind of a Yogin, O king”.
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to the “object of knowledge” (i.e., that which is grasped).—There are three components of knowledge identified in Hindu philosophical discourse to demarcate the differences between these four stages of samādhi. In any act of knowledge, there is the “knower,” or subject of knowledge; the instruments of knowledge (mind and senses, etc.); and the object of knowledge. These are termed “gṛhitṛ,” “grahaṇa,” and “grāhya” respectively (literally: the “grasper,” the “instrument of grasping,” and “that which is grasped”).
Yoga is originally considered a branch of Hindu philosophy (astika), but both ancient and modern Yoga combine the physical, mental and spiritual. Yoga teaches various physical techniques also known as āsanas (postures), used for various purposes (eg., meditation, contemplation, relaxation).
Ayurveda (science of life)
Veterinary Medicine (The study and treatment of Animals)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to “taking an elephant” (e.g., for use as a vehicle), according to the 15th century Mātaṅgalīlā composed by Nīlakaṇṭha in 263 Sanskrit verses, dealing with elephantology in ancient India, focusing on the science of management and treatment of elephants.—[Cf. chapter 3, “on unfavorable marks”]: “6. One who roams at night overly excited, or early in the morning cries out in excitement at the (song of the) birds, who is always trying to fly up into the air, or fanning with his stick-like tail, who incessantly lifts up his fore-limbs, and who constantly gets out of the control of his driver: know that such a one is a rogue elephant, and must not be taken (grāhya) [na grāhya eṣaḥ], even if he is rich in quantities of all excellences”.
Āyurveda (आयुर्वेद, ayurveda) is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, taxology, anatomy, surgery, alchemy and related topics. Traditional practice of Āyurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millenium BC. Literature is commonly written in Sanskrit using various poetic metres.
Vedanta (school of philosophy)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to “(those thing that are to be) grasped”, according to the Aṣṭāvakragītā (5th century BC), an ancient text on spirituality dealing with Advaita-Vedānta topics.—Accordingly, [as Aṣṭavakra says to Janaka]: “Knowing yourself as truly one and indestructible, how could a wise man possessing self-knowledge like you feel any pleasure in acquiring wealth? [...] How should a strong-minded person, who knows that what he sees is by its very nature nothing, consider one thing to be grasped (grāhya) and another to be rejected (tyājya)? [idaṃ grāhyamidaṃ tyājyaṃ sa kiṃ paśyati dhīradhīḥ] For someone who has eliminated attachment, and who is free from dualism and from desire, an object of enjoyment that comes of itself is neither painful nor pleasurable”.
Vedanta (वेदान्त, vedānta) refers to a school of orthodox Hindu philosophy (astika), drawing its subject-matter from the Upanishads. There are a number of sub-schools of Vedanta, however all of them expound on the basic teaching of the ultimate reality (brahman) and liberation (moksha) of the individual soul (atman).
In Buddhism
Mahayana (major branch of Buddhism)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to “graspable” (i.e., ‘that which can be grasped’) (as opposed to Agrāhya—‘ungraspable’), according to the Gaganagañjaparipṛcchā: the eighth chapter of the Mahāsaṃnipāta (a collection of Mahāyāna Buddhist Sūtras).—Accordingly: “[...] The Bodhisattva Dharmarāja and the whole congregation, having joined the palms of their hands, paid homage to open space, and sat down. Then, by the magical presence of the Bodhisattva Gaganagañja, these verses resonated in open space: ‘[...] (138) Just as the open space is boundless and ungraspable (agrāhya) everywhere, the great power of insight is the same as the sameness of open space. (139) Just as a bird flying in the sky does not leave any trace, one who practices for awakening does not have any distinguishing mark in their behaviour. [...]’”.
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to the “perceived object” (e.g., in discussing the relation of “perceived object” and “perceiving subject”), according to the Tattvaratnāvalī (“a jewel garland of true reality”)—the title of one of the 26 texts revolving around the theme of amanasikāra (“non-conceptual realization”) ascribed to Maitrīpa (c. 986–1063)—an influential late Indian Buddhist master who helped bring Mahāsiddha-style Mahāmudrā teachings into a monastic Mahāyāna scholastic setting.—Accordingly, [while describing the philosophy of the Mahāyāna and its division of Pāramitānaya according to Yogācāra and its doctrine of Sākāravāda]: “[...] [The mind on its own] bears mental forms, is free from [any] relation of perceived object (grāhya) and perceiving subject (grāhaka), and clearly displays [everything]. This is also stated [in the Daśabhūmikasūtra]: ‘Oh, you sons of the victorious one! This threefold world is mind only’. Likewise, see Dharmakīrti [in Pramāṇavārttika, III.432]: [...]”.
Mahayana (महायान, mahāyāna) is a major branch of Buddhism focusing on the path of a Bodhisattva (spiritual aspirants/ enlightened beings). Extant literature is vast and primarely composed in the Sanskrit language. There are many sūtras of which some of the earliest are the various Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.
Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) refers to “conceivable” (as opposed to Agrāhya—‘inconceivable’) [i.e., agrāhyānabhilāpyāś ca], according to the Guru Mandala Worship (maṇḍalārcana) ritual often performed in combination with the Cakrasaṃvara Samādhi, which refers to the primary pūjā and sādhanā practice of Newah Mahāyāna-Vajrayāna Buddhists in Nepal.—Accordingly, “Conditions are like reflections, transparent, pure, indeed clear, Inconceivable (agrāhya) and inexpressible, arising from causes and effects”.
Tibetan Buddhism includes schools such as Nyingma, Kadampa, Kagyu and Gelug. Their primary canon of literature is divided in two broad categories: The Kangyur, which consists of Buddha’s words, and the Tengyur, which includes commentaries from various sources. Esotericism and tantra techniques (vajrayāna) are collected indepently.
India history and geography
Grāhya.—(IE 8-8), ‘to be apprehended or recruited’. Cf. a-kiñcid-grāhya; ‘to be levied’. Note: grāhya is defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it can be found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian languages.
The history of India traces the identification of countries, villages, towns and other regions of India, as well as mythology, zoology, royal dynasties, rulers, tribes, local festivities and traditions and regional languages. Ancient India enjoyed religious freedom and encourages the path of Dharma, a concept common to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.
Languages of India and abroad
Marathi-English dictionary
grāhya (ग्राह्य).—a S (Possible, purposed, necessary, or occurring) to be received or taken, to be seized or caught.
grāhya (ग्राह्य).—a (Fit, possible) To be taken.
Marathi is an Indo-European language having over 70 million native speakers people in (predominantly) Maharashtra India. Marathi, like many other Indo-Aryan languages, evolved from early forms of Prakrit, which itself is a subset of Sanskrit, one of the most ancient languages of the world.
Sanskrit dictionary
Grāhya (ग्राह्य).—a. [grah ṇyat]
1) To be taken or seized &c., see ग्रह् (grah).
2) To be understood; इन्द्रियग्राह्यः (indriyagrāhyaḥ) Manusmṛti 1.7.
3) Acceptable; सा सेवा या प्रभुहिता ग्राह्या वाक्यविशेषतः (sā sevā yā prabhuhitā grāhyā vākyaviśeṣataḥ) Pañcatantra (Bombay) 1.46.
3) To be received in a hospitable manner.
5) To be admitted in evidence; स्वभावेनैव यद्ब्रूयुस्तद् ग्राह्यं व्यावहारिकम् (svabhāvenaiva yadbrūyustad grāhyaṃ vyāvahārikam) Manusmṛti 8.78.
-hyam 1 A present.
2) The object of sensual perception.
-hyaḥ An eclipsed globe (sun or moon).
Grāhya (ग्राह्य).—mfn.
(-hyaḥ-hyā-hyaṃ) 1. To be seized, to be taken, to be accepted. 2. To be accepted as a rule or a law, to be acknowledged or assented to. 3. To be attended to or obeyed. 4. To be admitted in evidence, &c. 5. To be apprehended or arrested. E. grah to take, ṇyat aff.
Grāhya (ग्राह्य).—[adjective] to be seized, taken, held, gathered, gained, received, perceived, understood, learned, recognized, considered.
1) Grahya (ग्रह्य):—[from grah] mfn. belonging to or fit for a Graha (ladleful of any fluid), [Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā iv, 24.]
2) Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—[from grah] mfn. to be seized or taken or held, [Ṛg-veda x, 109, 3; Manu-smṛti; Yājñavalkya; Mahābhārata] etc.
3) [v.s. ...] to be clasped or spanned, [Kathāsaritsāgara lxxiv, 217]
4) [v.s. ...] to be captured or imprisoned, [Yājñavalkya ii, 267 & 283; Mahābhārata] etc.
5) [v.s. ...] to be overpowered, [Prabodha-candrodaya ii, 8/9]
6) [v.s. ...] (a- [negative]), [Rāmāyaṇa [Bombay edition] iii, 33, 16]
7) [v.s. ...] to be picked or gathered, [Rāmāyaṇa iv, 43, 29]
8) [v.s. ...] to be received or accepted or gained, [Manu-smṛti; Yājñavalkya; Mahābhārata] etc.
9) [v.s. ...] to be taken in marriage, [xiii, 5091]
10) [v.s. ...] to be received in a friendly or hospitable manner, [xii, 6282]
11) [v.s. ...] to be insisted upon, [Kathāsaritsāgara xvii, 83]
12) [v.s. ...] to be chosen or taken account of [Rājataraṅgiṇī iv, 612]
13) [v.s. ...] to be perceived or recognised or understood, [Manu-smṛti i, 7; Mahābhārata] etc. (cf. a-)
14) [v.s. ...] (in [astronomy]) to be observed, [Varāha-mihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā]
15) [v.s. ...] to be considered, [Rāmāyaṇa v, vii; Varāha-mihira’s Bṛhat-saṃhitā lxi, 19]
16) [v.s. ...] to be understood in a particular sense, meant, [Vopadeva vi, 15; Pāṇini [Scholiast or Commentator]]
17) [v.s. ...] to be accepted as a rule or law, to be acknowledged or assented to, to be attended to or obeyed, to be admitted in evidence, [Manu-smṛti viii, 78; Yājñavalkya; Mahābhārata] etc.
18) [v.s. ...] to be undertaken or followed (a vow), [Kathāsaritsāgara vcii, 38]
19) [v.s. ...] to be put (as confidence) in ([locative case]), [lviii, 36]
20) [v.s. ...] m. an eclipsed globe (sun or moon), [Sūryasiddhānta]
21) [v.s. ...] n. poison ([Boehtlingk’s Sanskrit-Woerterbuch in kuerzerer fassung]; ‘a present’ [Boehtlingk & Roth’s Sanskrit-Woerterbuch]), [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
22) [v.s. ...] the objects of sensual perception, [Yoga-sūtra i, 41]
23) Grāhyā (ग्राह्या):—[from grāhya > grah] f. archery exercise, [Demetrius Galanos’s Lexiko: sanskritikes, anglikes, hellenikes] (cf. dur-, suhha-, svayaṃ-.)
Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—[(hyaḥ-hyā-hyaṃ) a.] Acceptable, that should be admitted or taken.
Grahya (ग्रह्य):—adj. zum Graha (in der Bed. 2, b, β) gehörig, geeignet: a.mā.o si śu.raste.grahyaḥ [Vājasaneyisaṃhitā 4, 24.]
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Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—(wie eben)
1) adj. a) zu ergreifen, zu halten: hastena [Ṛgveda 10, 109, 3.] agrāhyā mūrdhajeṣvetāḥ striyaḥ [Mṛcchakaṭikā 122, 23.] śastraṃ dvijātibhirgrāhyam [Manu’s Gesetzbuch 8, 348.] pādau guroḥ [2, 71.] [Mahābhārata 5, 1335.] śaraḥ kṣatriyayā grāhyaḥ (bei der Heirathscerimonie) [Manu’s Gesetzbuch 3, 44.] [Yājñavalkya’s Gesetzbuch 1, 62.] — b) gefangen zu nehmen, festzusetzen [Yājñavalkya’s Gesetzbuch 2, 267. 283.] [Mahābhārata 7, 3431.] [Prabodhacandrodaja 36, 16. 99, 12.] — c) in Beschlag zu nehmen: dambhagrāhyo yaṃ deśaḥ [Prabodhacandrodaja 23, 8.] — d) mitzunehmen: asmiṃstu kila saṃmarde grāhyaṃ vividhamāyudham [Mahābhārata 7, 4337.] — e) zu sammeln, zu lesen: na grāhyaṃ phalamūlaṃ ca tasmindeśe plavaṃgamaiḥ [Rāmāyaṇa 4, 43, 29.] — f) zu erhalten, zu gewinnen, zu empfangen, anzunehmen: viṣādapyamṛtaṃ grāhyaṃ bālādapi subhāṣitam . amitrādapi sadvṛttamamedhyādapi kāñcanam .. zu gewinnen, zu vernehmen, anzunehmen, entgegenzunehmen [Manu’s Gesetzbuch 2, 239] [?(vgl. Cāṇakya 16).] sāraṃ tato grāhyam [Pañcatantra Pr. 10.] gopālena prajādhenorvittadugdhaṃ śanaiḥ śanaiḥ . pālanātpoṣaṇādgrāhyam [I, 249.] grāmādiṣu svāmigrāhyo bhāga āyaḥ [Pāṇini’s acht Bücher 5, 1, 47,] [Scholiast] (bhikṣām) mene prajāpatirgrāhyāmapi duṣkṛtakarmaṇaḥ [Manu’s Gesetzbuch 4, 248.] [Yājñavalkya’s Gesetzbuch 1, 202. 215.] [Mahābhārata 3, 13506. 13, 4436.] [Rāmāyaṇa 4, 34, 9.] [Mārkāṇḍeyapurāṇa 24, 24.] — g) zu ehelichen: aparā patitā caiva na grāhyā bhūtimicchatā [Mahābhārata 13, 5091.] — h) freundlich zu empfangen [Mahābhārata 12, 6282.] — i) worauf man zu bestehen hat: īdṛktu vācā niyamo grāhyaḥ saṃbandhinā tvayā [Kathāsaritsāgara 17, 83.] — k) zu erfassen, wahrzunehmen, zu erkennen: na tvasau cakṣuṣā grāhyaḥ [Mahābhārata 14, 579.] sparśagrāhya [Suśruta 1, 153, 4.] atīndriya [Manu’s Gesetzbuch 1, 7.] buddhi [Mahābhārata 13, 1045.] [Bhagavadgītā 6, 21.] mano [Bhāṣāpariccheda 56.] agrāhyaṃ hṛdayaṃ tathaiva vadanaṃ yaddarpaṇāntargatam erkennbar und greifbar [Bhartṛhari]
2) n. Geschenk [Hemacandra’s Abhidhānacintāmaṇi 737.] — Vgl. durgrāhya, sukhagrāhya, svayaṃgrāhya .
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Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—
1) a) sukha bequem zu greifen [Kathāsaritsāgara 61, 33.] muṣṭigrāhyena madhyena zu umfassen, zu umspannen [74, 217.] — c) a von einem Fürsten so v. a. dem man nicht beikommen kann, nicht zu gewinnen (= anupasarpya [Scholiast]) [Rāmāyaṇa ed. Bomb. 3, 33, 16.] — h) der da verdient beachtet zu werden (Gegens. upekṣya) [Spr. 3806.] — m) grāhyaṃ devi na te nyathā [Rāmāyaṇa 7, 47, 13.] — o) Geltung habend [SARVADARŚANAS. 7, 1.] vākya [Spr. 1923.] hierher auch die u. p) stehenden Stellen. na pratyayaḥ strīṣu grāhyaḥ so v. a. man darf den Weibern kein Vertrauen schenken [Kathāsaritsāgara 58, 36.] — p) die Bed. zu streichen, da die Stellen zu o) gehören; st. dessen zu setzen zu unternehmen: vrata [Kathāsaritsāgara 97, 38.]
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Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—m. der verfinsterte Himmelskörper [Sūryasiddhānta 4, 11. fg. 22. 25. 6, 3.7. 11. 17. 19. 21.]
Grahya (ग्रह्य):—Adj. zu einem Bechervoll gehörig , — geeignet.
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Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—( grāhia) —
1) Adj. — a) zu ergreifen , zu halten , zu packen , zu fassen , zu umfassen. — b) gefangen zu nehmen , festzusetzen. — c) in Beschlag zu nehmen. — d) mitzunehmen. — e) zu sammeln , zu lesen. — f) zu erhalten , zu gewinnen , zu empfangen , anzunehmen , entgegenzunehmen. — g) zu ehelichen. — h) freundlich zu empfangen. — i) worauf man zu bestehen hat. — k) zu erfassen , wahrzunehmen , zu erkennen , zu erlernen [Indische sprüche 7855.] — l) zu betrachten (in astronomischem Sinne). — m) aufzufassen , anzusehen. — n) zu verstehen , so v.a. gemeint. — o) anzunehmen , anzuerkennen ([185,17]), für giltig anzusehen , Geltung habend , zu berücksichtigen. — p) zu unternehmen. — q) dem man sich hingeben darf. na pratyayaḥ srīṣu grāhyaḥ so v.a. man darf den Weibern kein Vertrauen schenken. —
2) m. der verfinsterte Himmelskörper. —
3) *f. ā Uebungen im Bogenschiessen [Galano's Wörterbuch] —
4) *n. Gift.
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) in the Sanskrit language is related to the Prakrit words: Gajjha, Gijjha, Gejjha.
Sanskrit, also spelled संस्कृतम् (saṃskṛtam), is an ancient language of India commonly seen as the grandmother of the Indo-European language family (even English!). Closely allied with Prakrit and Pali, Sanskrit is more exhaustive in both grammar and terms and has the most extensive collection of literature in the world, greatly surpassing its sister-languages Greek and Latin.
Hindi dictionary
Grāhya (ग्राह्य) [Also spelled grahm]:—(a) worth taking, acceptable; hence ~[tā] (nf).
...
Kannada-English dictionary
Grāhya (ಗ್ರಾಹ್ಯ):—
1) [adjective] that can be caught, seized.
2) [adjective] that can be or fit to be received; worth accepting.
3) [adjective] that can be mentally grasped, understood.
4) [adjective] good enough to fulfil a need, wish, requirement, etc.; satisfactory.
5) [adjective] ಗ್ರಾಹ್ಯವಾಗು [grahyavagu] grāhyavāgu to become understood; to be comprehended; 2. to be or become acceptable.
Kannada is a Dravidian language (as opposed to the Indo-European language family) mainly spoken in the southwestern region of India.
Nepali dictionary
Grāhya (ग्राह्य):—adj. 1. fit to be taken; acceptable; 2. perceptible; 3. understandable; experienceable;
Nepali is the primary language of the Nepalese people counting almost 20 million native speakers. The country of Nepal is situated in the Himalaya mountain range to the north of India.
See also (Relevant definitions)
Starts with (+2): Grahyabhava, Grahyabhuta, Grahyabimba, Grahyagir, Grahyagrahaka, Grahyajna, Grahyaka, Grahyakavishaya, Grahyalakshana, Grahyamandala, Grahyamsha, Grahyartha, Grahyarupa, Grahyata, Grahyate, Grahyatva, Grahyavac, Grahyavant, Grahyavat, Grahyavikalpa.
Full-text (+94): Agrahya, Anugrahya, Sugrahya, Samgrahya, Upagrahya, Pratigrahya, Durgrahya, Parigrahya, Manograhya, Atigrahya, Buddhigrahya, Vigrahya, Nirgrahya, Nigrahya, Bhavagrahya, Grahyatva, Mushtigrahya, Dvindriyagrahya, Sukhagrahya, Apigrahya.
Relevant text
Search found 122 books and stories containing Grahya, Grāhya, Grāhyā; (plurals include: Grahyas, Grāhyas, Grāhyās). You can also click to the full overview containing English textual excerpts. Below are direct links for the most relevant articles:
Women in the Atharva-veda Samhita (by Pranab Jyoti Kalita)
9. Goddess Grāhi < [Chapter 4 - Female Deities and the Glorification of Women in the Atharvaveda]
Manusmriti with the Commentary of Medhatithi (by Ganganatha Jha)
Verse 3.44 < [Section IV - The Eight Forms of Marriage]
Verse 2.239 < [Section XXXI - Acquiring of Learning from the Lowest]
Verse 8.78 < [Section XII (A) - Evidence]
A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Madras (by M. Seshagiri Sastri)
Rig Veda (translation and commentary) (by H. H. Wilson)
Rig Veda 10.109.3 < [Sukta 109]
Reverberations of Dharmakirti’s Philosophy (by Birgit Kellner)