Theravada Buddhist studies in Japan

by Keiko Soda | 1993 | 31,102 words

This essay studies the acceptance of Buddhism in Japanese culture and nature, in light of the concept of “Impermanence”. The history of Japanese Buddhism traces its origins from its introduction through Korea, evolving significantly over various periods. Initially propagated by Prince Shotoku during the Nara Period, it saw the emergence of sects li...

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A. ' INTRODUCTION } The biggest complete works of the Buddhist Sutras are Taisho Tripitaka-Shinshu-Dalzo-kyo (The New Complete Works of the Buddhist Sutras in the Taisho Tripitaka Period, Tokyo, DaizoShhuppan, 1924-1934, 100 Vols.). There are 17 Vols. of the Mahayana sutras in it. There are complete works of Tibetan Buddhism. Most of them are the Mahayana sutras and the sutras of the secret teaching (Mantrayana) are also large in quantity. These sutras were written in India originally and there should have existed the Sanskrit sutras, but the most of them are lost. A few I 19. Op. cit., p. 7. ¦

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-: 95 :sutras spread over Nepal and some manuscripts and some fragments are found in Kashmir, Central Asia and Afghanistan. Generally, the history of the Mahayana sutras is divided into three periods. The first one is from the beginning of the Christian era to the time of Nagarjuna; the second one is from Nagarjuna to the time of Asanga and Vasubandhu, and the third one was after Vasubandhu. The Kushan period in northern India and Satavahana in South India cover the first period. During this period many sutras were produced. The second period falls in the Gupta period and many sutras were composed. The third period was after Vasubandhu and very few sutras, except the Secret Teachings of Mantrayana were written. B. THE EARLIEST MAHAYANA SUTRAS Concerning about the history of the development of Mahayana sutras, many scholars have given their opinions. Here a general statement will be considered with the help of Shoki-Daijo-kyoten-no-Seiritsukatel (The Process of the Early Mahayana Sutras, Kyoto, Hyyakaen, 1974) by Shizutani Masao. In this book, he distinguished the earliest Mahayana sutras from the earlier Mahayana sutras. The reason was that the earliest sutras did not use the word Mahayana, did not preach the thought of emptiness (Sunya, sunyata), did

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} -: 96 :not criticize the faith for the Stupas and Theravada Buddhism. It seems that they were written in the first century A.D. and at least fifty years before the earlier Mahayana Sutras. Here are the Sutras: . [Lost Sutras ] Only the names of the sutras are left, Rokuharamitsu-kyo, (Sat Paramitah Sutra), Dochi-Daikyo, Sambon-kyo and Bosatsuzo-kyo. s ☐ Ashukabutsu-kyo (Ahsobliya-buddha Sutra) and the earliest Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita-sutras) ] In the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita-Sutras), since Dogyo-hannya-kyo (Tao-hsing-pan-jo-ching) which are the oldest surviving translations, many articles about Aksobhya-buddha are found. It shows that the faith for Aksobhya-buddha was noticed even before the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita-sutras) were composed. The sutra the theme of which is the faith for Aksobhya-buddha is Ashukubutsu-kyo (Aksobhya-buddha-sutra) which is translated by Lokaksema. The faith for Aksobhyabuddha is found in Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra, it has a lation close relation to the Wisdom Sutras (PrajnaparamitaSutras). ✓ Amida-kyo (Sukhavati-vyuha sutra) and Hanju-zammaikyo (Pratyutpanna-samadhi-sutra) 7.

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-: 97 : found. Amida-kyo (Sukhavati-vyuha-sutra) was translated by Chih-ch'ien where the teaching of the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita-sutras) and the name of Mahayana are not There is another old sutra named Pratyutpannasamadhi-sutra concerning the faith for Amitabha-buddha. It is translated by Lokaksema. The translation of 3 Vols. is older than the translation of 1 Vol. Only Amitabha-Buddha has been described in the translation of 3 Vols. ☐ Powerful Samadhi Sutra (Surangama-Samadhi-Sutra) and Monjubosatsu (Manjusri-bodhisattva). ] The word surang ama-samadhi means the existence of Bodhisattva who is the leader of the new Buddhist movement. Manjusri-Bodhisattva is that symbol. Generally, Manjusri is considered to be combined with the Wisdom Sutra (Prajnaparamita-sutra), but in the earliest Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita-sutras), he was not mentioned. Of the Surangama-Samadhi-sutra, only the translation by Kumarajiva (344-413) is left. But the translation by Lokaksema is not available. / Diamond Sutra (Vajra-Paramita sutra).7 It is generally accepted that among the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita sutras), various groups of Sutras beginning from the Small Wisdom Sutra were written at

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-: 98 : first which were followed by the sutras like the Diamond Sutra (Vajra-paramita-sutra) ard Monju-hannyakyo (Saptasatika-prajnaparamita sutra). But in the Diamond Sutra (Vajra-paramita sutra), the expression of the teaching and the form of the Sutra are very simple but the word 'emptiness' (Sunya or Sunyata) are not found in it. C. THE EARLIER MAHAYANA SUTRAS The striking feature of the earlier Mahayana sutras lies in the fact that they use the term "Mahayana", the faith for the sutras and the existence of the concept of the emptiness (Sunya, Sunyata). After the establishment of the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita sutras), the influence of that teaching became strong and all the Mahayana sutras accepted the doctrine of emptiness (sunya, sunyata). At the same time, the faith for the various Buddhas influenced one another. Among them, the faith for Amitabha Buddha generalized and represented the teaching of the 'Pure Land' of the Buddha. And now, the faith for Avatamsaka-sutra (Hua-yen-ching) and for the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra) expanded rapidly. o The Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita sutras). 7 20 20. There are many Prajnaparamita-sutras, viz. } 1) Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita ii) Vajracche dika Do contd p.99.

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-: 99 : The number of the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita sutras) gradually increased. The Great Wisdom Discourse (Mahaprajnaparamitopadesa, Ta-chin-tu-lun) is the commentary on the Prajnaparamita-hrdaya-sutra consisting of knowledge of the teaching of the earlier Mahayana Buddhism in it. The new point of view about dharma is showed in the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita) and the position of Mahayana Buddhism was established. At the same time it pulled Buddha-centered Mahayana Buddhism back to dharma-centered religion. And they thought much of this point of view about dharma, and it became the main stream of Mahayana Buddhism to emphasize the practice for the enlightenment. With the Wisdom-Sutras (Prajnaparamita sutras), Manjusri-sutras like the Powerfulsamadhi-sutra (Surangama-samadhi-sutra) emphasize the way of Bodhisattva. The Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra is one of them. There is another sutra which has influenced the Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra is the Maharatnakuta Sutra (Ta-pao-chi-ching). The Great Collection Sutra (Mahasannipata-sutra, Ta-chi-ching) was most probably composed during the end of earlier Mahayana Buddhism. iii) Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita iv) Pancavimeati-gahasrika Prajnaparamita v) Dasasahasrika Prajnaparamita vi) Saptasatika Prajnaparamita vii) Adhyardhasatika Prajnaparamita viii) Prajnaparamita-hrdaya-sutra ix) Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra

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ܚ؛ -: 100 :. o The Garland Sutra (Avatamsaka sutra, Hua-yen-ching).] 1 But The original name of the Garland Sutra (Avatamsaka sutra) is Buddha-avatamsaka-nama-maha-vaipulya-sutra (60 Vols. translated by Buddhabhadra, Fo-t'o-Pa-t'o-lo). all the contents do not belong to the earlier Mahayana Sutras. Some partial translations of the Sutra are available. It is one of the great Mahayana Sutras ranking with the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita Sutras). In the Garland Sutras (Avatamsaka-sutra), the ten stages (bhumi) of developing the Buddha wisdom (dasa-bhumayah) have been described. The main point of the preaching of the Garland Sutra (Avatamsaka-sutra) is the chapter on the conception of Tathagata. In the next period, this theory of Tathagata became the base of the thought of the Tathagata or Buddha-nature inherent in all sentient beings (tathagata-garbha). Vairocana-Buddha mentioned in the Avatamsaka-sutra is connected with the Buddha who expounded esoteric-Buddhism (MahavairocanaTathagata). o ✓ Sutras of the teaching of the 'Pure Land' of a Buddhs 7. 0 The Buddha of the "Pure Land Sutra" (Sukhavativyuha-Sutra) translated by Samghavarman (K'ang-seng-k'ai). Its doctrines are based on the various sects of the teaching of the "Pure Land". The thought of emptiness (Sunya, Sunyata) influenced the doctrines. At the same time,

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-: 101 :Amitabha the beginning of the faith for Amitabha Buddha has become the faith of all the Mahayana Buddhists. Buddha is not mentioned in the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita sutras) and Avatamsaka sutra (Hua-yen-ching). Because the purpose of these sutras was to establish the way of practice for the bhiksu and the bhiksuni. But the faith for Amitabha Buddha was accepted in the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra) from the early times. The first translation of the Sukhavati-vyuha (0mi-t'o-ching) was done by Kumarajiva. And it is generally accepted that the sutra setting forth the meditation on Amida Buddha (Amitayur-dhyana-sutra, Kuan-Wu-liang-shouching) has been composed outside of India. There were many faiths in the "Pure Land", like the faith in the immovable Buddha (Aksobhya-buddha), the faith in the Buddha of Healing (Bhaisajya-guru, Bhaisajya-guruvaiduryaprabha-tathagata) and the faith in the Maitreya Buddha. In China and Japan, the faith in Maitreya Buddha had been popular even before Amitabha Buddha. } o The Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra). ] In the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita Sutras) and the Garland Sutra (Avatamsaka sutra, Hua-yen-ching), the thoughts of Mahayana Buddhism have been emphasized as 1

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1 wo -: 102 :the way of bodhisattva. But in the sutras of the teaching of the Pure Land, the faith in the Buddha has or been emphasized. The object of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra) is to emphasize sakyamuni's passing into Nirvana and the Tathagata's deification in the Stupa. The most striking feature of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-Pundarika-sutra) is the thought of the one vehicle (ekayana). On the other hand, the Wisdom Sutras (Prajnaparamita-sutras) propagated the doctrine of the three vehicles (trini yanani): Bodhisattva-yana, Sravaka-yana and Pratyeka-buddha--yana. The Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra) has the faith in the sutras and at the same time, the faith in the stupa was reaffirmed in it. Dharmaraksa (Chu-fa-hu) was active from the end of the 3rd century A.D. to the beginning of 4th century A.D. The main Mahayana sutras were arranged in full by him. And they almost corresponded to the various sutras quoted in Mahaprajnaparamitopadesa (Ta-chin-tulun). Thus, all the materials by which Nagarjuna established the theory of Mahayana Buddhism were arranged by Dharmaraksa. D. THE MAHAYANA SUTRAS OF LATER PERIOD There are important thoughts, like the thought of Buddha-nature inherent in all sentient beings } }

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1 : 103 (tathagata-garbha) and the thought of consciousness only (vijnapti-matrata) which have not been mentioned in Nagarjuna's writings. The theories of Asanga (310- 390) and Vasubandhu (320-400) are based on these thoughts. Therefore, it is considered that the composition of the sutras concerning these thoughts was done in the period. from Nagarjuna to Vasubandhu, that is, during the Midperiod of Mahayana Buddhism. • Sutra of Buddha-nature inherent in all sentient beings (tathagata-garbha). 7 In this Sutra it is preached that all sentient beings have Buddha-nature inherent in them (tathagatagarbha). There are sutras like the "Sutra of the great demise "(Mahaparinibbana-suttanta, Ta-pan-nieh-p'anching) translated by Dharmaksema (383-433), Suvarnaprabhasottama-raja-sutra, Srimala-devi-simhanada-sutra (translated by Gunabhadra, Ch'in-na-pa-t'o-lo), Angulimala-sutra, the "Sutra on that which neither increase nor decrease" (Pu-tseng-pu-chien-ching) translated by Bodhiruci, "A Two-fascile sutra" (Wu-shang-i-ching) translated by Chen-li. These sutras were influenced by the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra) and emphasised the thought of one vehicle (ekayana). o ✓ Sutras of consciousness only (Vijnapti-matrata) 7. } The basic sutra of the Vijnapti-matrata doctrine was Samdhinirmocana-sutra (Chieh-Shen-mi-ching). E

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-: 104 :As it was partly translated by Gunabhadra, it seems that it was composed by the end of the 4th century. Other Sutras are Yogacara-bhumi (Yii-ch'ieh-shih-ti-lun) and Mahayana-sutralamkara (Ta-ch'ing-chung-yen-chinglun). Generally, the sutras of this period are based on logic and the theory is difficult to understand. The theory to equate Tathagata-garbha with the storeconsciousness (alaya-vijnana) or consciousness only (vijnapti-matrata) is found in the Lamkavatara-sutra. A sixty-fascicle Mahayana sutra collection (Tachi-ching) influenced by the thought of Buddha-nature inherent in all sentient beings (tathagata-garbha) was also composed in the later time. But the number of the production of the Mahayana sutras gradually decreased in this period. In stead of them, the sutras of the secret teaching (Tantra-yana) were produced. Mahavairocana sutra (Ta-jih-ching) was produced in 650 and its theory was considered to be established by VajraSekhara Sutra (Chin-kang-ting-ching).

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