3. The Origin of Śramaṇa Tradition

The word Śramaṇa is mixed in meaning with wanderer, recluse, religious mendicant ascetic etc. Even in the Indus civilization, one can discern the seed of the Śramaṇa tradition which germinated at a later date. In the Ṛigveda we read about a class of holy men called ‘minis’ (silent one), different from the Brahmanas.^[1] S. R.Goyal has mentioned that the most important group of people who stoop on the boundary line of the non-Vedic religious ideas was the munis.^[2] According to Śaṅkarācārya the Vedic religious is twofold–Pravṛitti Dharma and Nivṛitti Dhamma. Some scholars believe that the two Brāhmana and Śramaṇa traditions belong to the Aryans and non-Aryans of which Śramaṇa s belonged to the non-Aryans.

But the Vedic Aryans were filled with a certain sense of wander and awe at the sight of miracle performing munis.

“There can hardly be a doubt that the muni was to the Ṛgvedic culture and alien figure”.^[3]

There was another non-Aryans ascetic tradition named ‘Yatis’ like the ‘munis’ in the Vedic period. The practiced meditation and mortification. The Ṛgveda and the Samaveda mentions about ‘yatis’. Another group of the ascetics were the Vratyas. They belonged to a non-Aryan tribe who did not agree with the Brāhmanical ceremonies of sacrifices. “The Vratyas seem to have described their supreme being as Ekavratya. In the Vratya Kanda of the Atharva veda the Ekavratya is described as practicing austerities (tapas), as standing erect for a whole year and as having seven prāṇas (breaths), seven apāṇas (expirations) and seven vyanas [out breathings]. This indicates his close association with yoga.^[4]

In the 6^th century B.C. outside and inside of the Śramaṇa movement a large number of separate schools of philosophy developed. Why did such an amount of philosophical sects arise during this period? According to some historians those ascetic movements arose as a result of the break up of the tribal economy and other socio-economic changes which were concomitant with the second Urban Revolution. Basham also has mentioned this critical situation. “The time of which we speak was one of great social change, when old tribal units were breaking up. The feelings of group solidarity which the tribe gave was removed and men stood face to face with the world, with no refuge in their kinsmen chieftains who were overthrown, their courts dispersed, their lands and tribes men absorbed in the great kingdoms. A new order was coming into being…Despite the great growth of material civilization at the time the hearts of many men were failing them for fear of what should come to pass upon early. It is chiefly to this deep feeling of insecurity that we must attribute the growth of pessimism and asceticism in the middle centuries of the first millennium B. C.^[5]

In general the Śramaṇa s claimed to teach men how to live, how to attain real happiness, or how to attain some higher state of experience, either in this life or in some future life, considered to be supremely blissful or peaceful or in perfect wisdom. They rejected the Vedic tradition and the rituals of the Brāhmanas. “Their special views depended on their perception of the nature of the universe which varied greatly. They agreed however, in treating in as a natural phenol-menon with ascertainable natural laws, not as the creation or a plaything of gods or a God.^[6]

Their theory of Karma replaced the gods, what man achieves is not owed to gods, but to his past actions. The next birth of a man will be decided by his own actions. According to the Śramaṇa s the lay men, the devotees and the monks had ruled of morality which out to be followed. This is noted in the Jaina and Buddhist disciplinary rules. “In the description of the duties of the householders the Śramaṇic sects laid comparatively greater emphasis on social obligations.^[7]

This transitional age was an age of religious freedom people were free to choose their way of life. This freedom of thought gave rise to several sects of Śramaṇas. These Śramaṇic ideas penetrated to the minds of the people because of their simple way of life and teachings. The new social and political situation also was serviceable to spread the Śramaṇa tradition. According to the Jaina canon there were 636 cults. Pāli literature refers to the existence 62 doctrinal views. Aṅguttara Nikāya mentions a number of Śramaṇic sects such as Ajīvaka, Nigaṇṭha, Munda-savaka, Jaṭilaka, Paribbājaka, Magaṇṭhika, Tedandika, Aviduddaka, Gotamaka and Devadhammika.^[8] Many of these religious sects were short time of, and gradually faded away. Buddhism (Gotamaka) and Nigaṇṭha (Jaina) religious made and outstanding contribution to the ideas of man, giving to Indian culture a philosophy that has influenced the whole world.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Rgveda. X. 136

[2]:

Goyal S. R. A History of Indian Buddhism

[3]:

Pande G. C. The Origins of Buddhism (Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1983)

[4]:

Goyal S. R. A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 40-1.

[5]:

Basham A. L. The World That was India, p. 248-9

[6]:

Warder. A. K. Outline of Indian Philosophy, p. 32

[7]:

Goyal S. R. A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 68

[8]:

Dha II, p. 55; AN III, p. 276.