The Buddhist Path to Enlightenment (study)

by Dr Kala Acharya | 2016 | 118,883 words

This page relates ‘Kayanupassana—Contemplation of the Body’ of the study on the Buddhist path to enlightenment. The Buddha was born in the Lumbini grove near the present-day border of India and Nepal in the 6th century B.C. He had achieved enlightenment at the age of thirty–five under the ‘Bodhi-tree’ at Buddha-Gaya. This study investigates the teachings after his Enlightenment which the Buddha decided to teach ‘out of compassion for beings’.

1.3.1. Kāyanupassanā—Contemplation of the Body

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[Full title: The four foundations of mindfulness (cattaro satipaṭṭhāna)—(1): Kāyanupassanā—Contemplation of the Body]

The first satipaṭṭhāna, contemplation of body, comprises fourteen types of practice:

(1) mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati);
(2) mindfulness of bodily postures (iriyāpatha);
(3) clear comprehension (sampajāna) in regard to bodily activities and daily routines;
(4) attention to the repulsive-ness of the body (paṭikūlamanasikāra) by analysing the body into its anatomical parts;
(5) attention to the elements (dhātumanasikāra); and
(6–14) the nine cemetery contemplations (navasivatika) that remind of the different stages of a corpse’s decomposition.

Among these techniques, the attention to repulsiveness and the nine cemetery contemplations require visualization, imagina-tion or recollection of sights neither seen before nor experienced perso-nally at the moment of actual practice, and thus deviate from the spirit of the remaining satipaṭṭhāna techniques, which require meditators to observe and know the mental or physical phenomena as they really are whenever these phenomena are person-ally experienced by them.

Therefore, in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, while the “attention to repulsive-ness” and the “nine cemetery contemplations” function as samatha meditation at the earlier stage of development,^[1] it is only at latter stage they turn into vipassanā meditation, the remaining meditative prac-tices are meant to function as pure vipassanā meditation from the very beginning of development. This distinction makes “attention to repulsiveness” and the “nine cemetery contemplations”, in contrast to the remaining practices and they fail to become a funda-mental meditation subject (kammaṭṭhāna) for meditators who intend to develop vipassanā meditation all the way to the final realization without the previous development of the form-sphere jhāna.

1. Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpānasati)

The mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati) in the Satipaṭṭhāna sutta is listed as the first meditative technique of the first satipaṭṭhāna.

The sutta describes it in terms of four steps:

Here a bhikkhu, gone to the forest or to the root of a tree or to an empty hut, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect, and established mindfulness in front of him, mindful he breaths in, mindful he breaths out. Breathing in long, he knows: “I breathe in long”, or breathing out long, he knows “I breathe out long”. Breathing in short, he knows: “I breathe in short”, or breathing out short, he knows “I breathe out short”. He trains thus, “I shall breathe in experiencing the whole body”, or he trains thus: “I shall breathe out experiencing the whole body”. He trains thus: “I shall breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation”, or he trains thus, “I shall breathe out tranquillizing the bodily formation”.^[2]

The first part of this passage suggests that the most suitable posture for developing mindfulness of breathing is the sitting posture. Nevertheless this does not mean that other postures are not advised because according to the Visuddhimagga,^{^[3]} meditators should decide by themselves which of the four postures is more suitable for them to concentrate the mind. Some modern meditation teachers also suggest that mindfulness of breathing may be conducted in any of the four postures.^[4] The first two steps of the practice, knowing the breathing as it really is, betray the fact that mindfulness of breathing should be practiced as insight meditation with the aim to understand the physical phenomenon of breathing as it really is. According to the Visuddhimagga,^[5] the expression of the third step “experiencing the whole body” sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedī refers to knowing vividly the whole process, the beginning, middle, and end of every in-breath and out-breath.^[6] The fourth step, to tranquillize the bodily formation (passam-bhayaṃ kāyasaṅkhāraṃ), seems to require meditators to deliberately calm down and still the body during sitting meditation; this is how the Paṭisambhidāmagga explains the passage. According to some modern meditation teachers, keeping the body deliberately still for some time without surrendering easily to the compelling desire to move some part of the body due to uncomfortable feelings is of great help to meditators in developing sustained concentration.^[7] On the other hand, the Mahākappina Sutta^[8] mentions that the concentration developed through the mindfulness of breathing makes the body remain immov-able without shaking or trembling. An alternative explanation for the fourth step is that the term kāyasaṅkhāra “bodily formation” refers to the breath proper, which naturally becomes more and more subtle as the mind and body becomes more and more peaceful and tranquil in consequence of the mindfulness of breathing.^[9] Despite the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta describing the practice of the mindfulness of breathing as pure insight meditation, the commentary of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta takes it to be related to the element of samatha meditation and capable of produ-cing a form-sphere jhāna experience.^[10]

A more refined version of the practice of “mindfulness of breathing” is found in the Ānāpānasati saṃyutta in Saṃyutta Nikāya.^{^[11]} In this version, the practice includes sixteen steps in total: the first group is the same as the four steps in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta; the second group consists of experiencing rapture (pītippaṭisaṃvedī), experiencing happiness (sukhappaṭisaṃvedī), experiencing the mental formations (cittasaṅkhārappaṭisaṃvedī), and tranquillizing mental formations (passambhayaṃ cittasaṅkhāra); the third group comprises experiencing the mind (cittappaṭisaṃvedī), gladdening the mind (abhippamodayaṃ cittaṃ), concentrating the mind (samādahaṃ cittaṃ), and liberating the mind (vimocayaṃ cittaṃ); and lastly the fourth group concerns contemplating impermanence (aniccānupassī), contemplating fading away (virāgānupassī), contemplating cessation (nirodhānupassī), and contemplating relinquishment (paṭinissaggānupassī). In view of the fourth tetrad, it is clear that this refined version necessarily leads to the realization of the characteristic of impermanence and thus also falls into the category of insight meditation. The Visuddhimagga interprets the experiences mentioned in the third and fourth groups of the sixteen steps, such as rapture (pīti), happiness (sukha) and concentration, as belonging to a meditator who has attained form-sphere jhāna; therefore it explains this sixteen-step practice only from the angle of a samathayānika.^[12] Yet, as we have seen above, insight meditation itself can give rise to strong rapture, happiness and concentra-tion, so it is implausible to interpret these experiences as deriving directly from the development of vipassanā meditation. In other words, all sixteen steps might be understood to be practice of insight meditation as well. This will lead to the conclusion that the sixteen steps concerning the mindfulness of breathing could be practised in the way of pure insight meditation. It is noteworthy that theVisuddhimagga^{^[13]} describes in quite some detail only how to practise the mindfulness of breathing with the method of samatha meditation, but it fails to explain how to practise mindfulness of breathing in the way of pure vipassanā. It is obvious that Ven. Buddhaghosa prefers not to instruct the mindfulness of breathing in the way of pure insight. The detailed instruction of how to practise the mindfulness of breathing in a pure vipassanā way can be found probably only in the works of modern meditation teachers.^[14] According to them, the difference between practicing the mindfulness of breathing as vipassanā meditation and practicing it as samatha meditation lies in the way that the attention focuses on breathing. In insight meditation the meditators pay attention to the various bodily sensations caused by the in-and-out breath around the nostril, with particular emphasis on discerning the change and variations of every sensation, and when any kind of mental signs (nimitta) arises due to the power of perception (saññā), meditators while recognizing the image do not give attention to it but instead stay with the bodily sensetions. In contrast with samatha meditation, meditators focus attention to the sensation around the nostril in a general way, not discriminating various sensations and their changes, and when mental signs (nimitta) arise due to the touch sensation, the mental images become the primary object which the meditator should focus on continuously.

Lastly, it is worth noting the relation between the “mindfulness of breathing” and the four satipaṭṭhānas, as described in the Ānāpānasati Sutta.^[15] It is said that the mindfulness of breathing with sixteen steps, when developed and cultivated, fulfills the four satipaṭṭhānas, which are described in its brief definition. This implies that the mindfulness of breathing with four steps as well as other practices belonging to the first satipaṭṭhāna in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta might respectively evolve in the course of time into a full-fledged meditative technique whose scope of objects is not confined to the body, i.e. physical phenomena, but extends to all the objects of the four satipaṭṭhānas, that is, body, feelings, mind, and dhamma, that include both mental and physical phenomena.

2. Mindfulness of Bodily Postures (Iriyāpatha)

The next two meditative techniques, the “mindfulness of four postures” and “clear comprehension as to bodily activities and daily routines” are both forms of pure insight meditation concerned with the awareness of bodily activities. They are conducive to the development of mindfulness not only in formal meditation retreat but also in everyday life. The way to practice the “mindfulness of postures” is described in the sutta thus:

When walking, a bhikkhu knows, “I am walking”; when standing, he knows, “I am standing”; when sitting, he knows, “I am sitting”; when lying down, he knows, “I am lying down”; or he knows accordingly however his body is disposed.^[16]

The four postures are adopted accordingly throughout everyone’s life. According to the Visuddhimagga, the characteristic of dukkha (suffering) in the human body does not become apparent because it is concealed by the continuous change of posture when continuous bodily oppressive sensations is not given attention,^[17] and an abuse of these four postures causes an end to human life.^[18] Therefore, it is important to be aware of these postures and to use them in a balanced way. Nevertheless, people usually adopt these postures unconsciously due to the over occupation of their mind with the purpose for which these postures are adopted. This satipaṭṭhāna technique requires meditators to be constantly aware of these four postures, to be precise, including any other minor postures and movements of the body.^[19] Since these four main postures together with other small bodily movements happen one after another all the time, meditators who practice this meditation subject have to continuously develop mindfulness directed to the body as long as they are awake. This instruction is documented in several Suttas. For example, in Aṅguttara Nikāya,^[20] the Buddha admonished a bhikkhu who was fulfilling morality training (sīla) to establish further unconfused mindfulness and to abandon the five hindrances while walking, standing, sitting and lying awake.^[21]

Also in Aṅguttara Nikā-ya,^[22] going forward, returning, standing, sitting, lying down and performing actions mindfully (sato) are said maintain mindfulness (anussatiṭṭhāna) that leads to the further development of mindfulness and clear comprehension.^[23] The commentary of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta^[24] explains in detail how a meditator realizes the law of dependent origin-nation (paṭiccasamuppāda) and breaks the wrong view of identity (sakkāyadiṭṭhi) through mindfulness of the four postures: the intention to walk, stand, sit and lie down cause the arising of the air element (vāyodhātu), through whose diffusion take place the actions of walking, standing, sitting and lying down. Being mindful the postures meditators will come to understand that there is no “I” or “person” who is adop-ting these postures; what actually exists is only impersonal mental and physical phenomena arising and passing away under the law of depen-dent origination. According to the same commentary, through awareness of the four postures alone, meditators can attain up to the final enlightenment.^[25]

Of the four postures, walking posture is frequently related to mental development by the Suttas. Several Suttas record the Buddha and his disciples practising “walking meditation” (caṅkama) during both the day and night.^[26] The Suttas dealing with “devotion to wakefulness” (jāgariyānuyoga) suggest that walking meditation should be practised side by side with sitting meditation during the daytime, and at the first and the third watch of night.^[27] In addition, walking meditation is a powerful meditation practice for producing insight knowledge. According to Aṅguttara Nikāya^[28] walking meditation in the form of insight meditation helps to quickly increase concentration not yet obtained and the concentration it does bring can last a long time. The commentary of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta reports some instances where a bhikkhu attains Arahantship through walking meditation.^[29]

According to the commentary of Dīgha Nikāya, Subhadda, the last disciple of the Buddha, also attains the final realization through walking meditation.^[30] A more dedicated instruction on walking meditation can be drawn out form the Visuddhimagga, where a single step of the foot is divided into six phrases: lifting up, shifting forward, shifting sideways, lowering down, placing down, and fixing down. When each phrase is observed carefully meditators will come to realize the characteristic of impermanence in these movements and their connection with the four elements (dhātu).^[31]

“Clear comprehension”, like the “mindfulness of postures”, is concerned with the mindfulness of bodily postures and movements. While the “mindfulness of postures” has a bare awareness of bodily postures and movements aiming to gain insight knowledge, the practice of “clear comprehension,” as we shall see below, has a wider scope of function.

The instruction for clear comprehension given in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is as follows:

A bhikkhu is one who acts with clear comprehension when going forward and returning; when looking ahead and looking aside; when drawing in and extending the limbs; when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe and bowl; when eating, drinking, chewing his food, and tasting; when defecating and urinating; when walking, standing, sitting, falling asleep, waking up, speaking and keeping silent.^[32]

This practice of clear comprehension commands meditators to maintain clear awareness of whatever they are doing from the moment of waking in the morning to the moment of falling asleep at night.^[33] The objects to be observed include not only bodily postures and movement, which are the objects in the mindfulness of postures too, but also daily routines that cannot be avoided inside and outside the formal meditation retreat. The commentary of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta classifies clear comprehension into four aspects and gives detailed explanation: clear comprehension as to benefitness (sātthaka), suitability (sappāya), domain (gocara), and non-delusion (asam-moha).^[34]

Before undertaking whatever activity meditators have to know clearly whether or not the activity intended is beneficial to themselves and others. If the activity is beneficial, meditators have to consider the suitable time and place for doing that activity. These two aspects of clear comprehension can also be applied to ordinary activities outside the meditative retreat. The third aspect of clear comprehension requires meditators to stay in their own domain (gocara), i.e. insight meditation or serenity meditation, no matter what routine activity is carried out. In other words, meditators are supposed to practise mindfulness from the time of waking to the moment of falling asleep. This undoubtedly requires extraordinary amounts of energy and determination on the part of meditators.^[35] The fourth aspect is in fact the outcome of successsful practice of the third aspect. When meditators diligently relate mindfulness practice to all activities they are doing, in due course they naturally come to realize that in reality there exists no “self” doing all these activities, and thus eradicate the delusion of “self”.

The fact that the instruction on clear comprehension is usually situated before the instruction on sitting meditation in the so-called “gradual path of training”^[36] has led Bhikkhu Sujato to regard this practice as merely “a preparation for jhāna”, which helps meditators only to “settle into meditation”.^[37] The Visuddhimagga treats “clear comprehension” in the same way as it does other meditative practices, and regards it as full-fledged insight meditation.^[38] Considering the commentarial explanation given above and the way the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta describes “clear comprehension”, it seems better to consider it, at least in the context of satipaṭṭhāna, as an independent integrated meditative practice that can lead to Arahantship, instead of just a foundation or preparatory work for other meditative practices. In fact, because the practice of clear comprehension requires meditators to develop insight meditation all through the time they are awake, it provides them with much opportunity to practice mindfulness continuously day and night without break, and so it may become the most powerful meditative practice that produces insight knowledge more quickly and effectively among all meditative practices.^[39] Indeed, the commentary of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta gives several examples wherein bhikkhus attained Arahantship while engaged in the development of clear comprehension. The fact that the practice of clear comprehension proper is an integrated meditative technique for realization of Arahantship is also documented in the narrative of Ānanda’ s realization of Arahantship as recorded in the Vinaya commentary: it is when Ven. Ānanda was lying down with clear comprehend-sion that his insight knowledge gained momentum to penetrate the nature of the mental and physical phenomena involved in that very action and so he realized Arahant-ship.^[40]

3. Clear Comprehension (Sampajāna)

The third subsection on the Contemplation of the body is called “mindfulness with clear comprehension.”

When meditation masters give instructions or talk about the practice of meditation, they use different expressions to express the same thing. “To be aware of the object,” “be mindful of it,” “watch it,” “take note of it,” “observe it,” try to see it clearly,” “try to know it clearly,” all these instructions mean the same thing. They mean “to keep your mind on the object and observe it closely and precisely.”

In the text, the Buddha said.

In going forward and in going back, a bhikkhu applies clear comprehension.^[41]

What is clear comprehension that the Buddha says? You must know the meaning of the term “clear comprehension.” To know its meaning, you must go back to the commentaries and look at the original Pāli word, sampajañña.

Three Kinds of Meaning of Sampajañña^[42]

The word sampajañña is derived from the word sampajañña, which means “one who sees correctly,” “one who knows correctly, entirely and equally or evenly.” When somebody is called sampajañña, his or her state of being is called sampajañña. So sampajañña means “seeing or knowing or discerning rightly, entirely, and evenly or equally.” the syllable saṃ, in the word sampajañña, is a prefix that has many meanings. The sub-commentary explains three meanings for this word.

The first meaning is “rightly” or correctly.” Therefore, when meditators try to see or observe the objects of meditation, they must see them clearly and precisely. You must not confuse them with other things. When you are distinguishing mind from matter and matter from mind, you must see mind separate from matter and matter separate from mind. You must not confuse these two with one another. You must see precisely and clearly. This is what is meant by saying, “He must see rightly or correctly.”

The second meaning of saṃ is “entirely.” When meditators see or discern an object, they must know it in its entirety. “In its entirety” means in all aspects of its mental or physical phenomena. You must know the characteristics, functions, and manifestations of given object.

The third meaning of saṃ is “equally” or “evenly.” Meditators must know how to evenly apply their mental faculties. When you practice meditation, you put five mental faculties to work. These five mental faculties are faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. They must work in harmony and be in balance with each other. Especially important is the balance of effort and concentration. When these faculties are even and equal, there will be concentration and wisdom arisen from concentration. When the faculties are not in balance, concentration is disturbed and scattered and, consequently, penetration into the nature of things cannot arise.

For that reason “clear comprehension” means seeing precisely, seeing everything in its entirety, seeing it by evenly using all mental faculties. Only when there is evenness in the application of the five mental faculties will there be further development of wisdom. When you apply clear comprehension, it means you observe or take note of the object, paying close attention to it, trying to see it thoroughly, precisely, and with all mental faculties in balance.

4. Attention to the Repulsiveness of the Body (Paṭikūlamanasikāra)

The “attention to repulsiveness” aims to view the body as being full of many kinds of foulness (asubha). Although in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, this “foulness meditation” (asubhabhāvanā) turns into a practice of vipassanā meditation at its later stage, it serves in the earlier stage, as showed in many Suttas, as an antidote to sensual attachment to one’s own body^[43] as well as the body of the opposite sex.^[44] In view of the event recorded in Saṃyutta Nikāya^{^[45]} that more than twenty bhikkhus committed suicide owing to an undue and overwhelming disgust for their own bodies aroused during foulness meditation, it is very possible that this meditative technique as a means to reduce bodily attachment was not intended to be a universal practice for all meditators^[46], nor to be practised as a fundamental meditation subject. The fact that after having known the events of the bhikkhus’ suicide the Buddha continued to teach the “mindfulness of breathing” without banning foulness meditation suggests that this meditative technique is better to be practised as an auxiliary technique to loosen strong attachment towards the body and to facilitate the development of other fundamental meditative practices, which in the context of Satipaṭṭhāna sutta, are pure insight meditation. This suggestion might claim support from the Suttas where this meditative practice, together with auxiliary practices, accompanies other meditative practices pertaining to insight meditation, such as the contemplation of impermanence in all formations.^[47]

5. Attention to the Elements

The last practice concerning the contemplation of the body is the “attention to the four elements”. The instruction for this practice is quite brief: A bhikkhu reviews this same body; however it is placed, however disposed, as consisting of elements thus: “In this body there is the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element”.^[48]

This passage does not clarify the four elements; a more detailed explanation of them is found in the Mahāhaṭṭhipadopama Sutta^{^[49]}, the Mahārāhulovāda sutta^{^[50]}, and the Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta^{^[51]}, where the four are divided into two categories, internal and external. Only the internal elements are defined and illustrated in terms of bodily phenolmena such as the bones (earth element), urine (water element), and inand-out breath (air element), whereas the external elements are merely acknowledged in the context that both the internal and external elements are simply elements.^[52] The Visuddhimagga^[53] explains that in the practice of attention to four elements described in the Saitpaṭṭhāna Sutta the meditator aims to perceive these elements repeatedly in terms of their characteristics (lakkhaṇa).^[54] The Visuddhimagga defines the characteristic of the earth element as “firmness” (thaddha -kakkhaḷa “hardness” in the Mahāhaṭṭhipadopama sutta; water element as “cohesion” (ābandhana); fire element as “heat” (paripācana); and air element as “movement” (vitthambhana).^[55] Regarding how to perceive the characteristics of these elements, the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha Pāli holds that while the water element can be known only inferentially, the remaining elements can be physically sensed through the sense of touch.^[56]

As has emerged above, the air element can be perceived through the practice of the “mindfulness of breath”, the “mindfulness of the four postures”, and the “clear comprehension”; all the four elements can be realized even in observing such a phrase as the foot’s lifting up, moving forward, and touching the ground. Also, when practicing the “attention to repulsiveness” (paṭikūlamanasikāra) by analyzing the body into its anatomical parts in the way of insight meditation, meditators can also discern the nature of the four elements, as shown in the Mahāhaṭṭhipadopama sutta.^[57] Thus, since most of the practices in the first satipaṭṭhāna, when developed to a certain degree in the way of insight meditation necessarily relate themselves to the “attention to elements,” it is reasonable to conclude that the “attention to elements” is in fact the core of the first satipaṭṭhāna practice. In fact, considering that all the physical phenomena (rūpa) including the physical body, are a manifestation of the four elements,^[58] we might reasonably conclude that it is the fundamental assignment of the first satipaṭṭhāna to know the true nature of the four elements as they really are. Thus, considering the original version of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta from which later versions belonging to different schools derived, I suggest the practice of the “attention to elements” be included in it in relation to the first satipaṭṭhāna.^[59]

6. The Nine Cemetery Contemplations (Navasivatika)

The “nine cemetery contemplations” and the “attention to repulseveness” have common characteristics in the sense that they both begin with directing the meditators’ mind to the unattractive aspects of the physical body to help develop an attitude of detachment towards it. Since the section on the “nine cemetery contemplations” also cautions the meditator with the expression, “This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that [corpse], it is not exempt from that destiny”,^[60] it becomes apparent that these practices also supply the function usually provided by the practices called the “reflection on death” (maraṇassati) and the “perception of death” (maraṇasaññā). In the practice of the reflection of death, meditators are reminded of one’s own inevitable death as well as the urgent necessity for timely and strenuous efforts to practise dhamma.^[61] According to Aṅguttara Nikaya,^[62] a bhikkhu who practises the “recollection of death” (maraṇassati) when night sets in should remind himself of the many conditions that may cause his own death.

When he sees that there are still unwholesome states lingering in him, he should arouse extraordinary (adhimatta) efforts, mindfulness and clear comprehension to abandon these unwholesome states.

"As though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground -one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and oozing matter … being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals, or various kinds of worms … a skeleton with flesh and blood, held together with sinews … a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood, held together with sinews … a skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews … disconnected bones scattered in all directions … bones bleached white, the colour of shells … bones heaped up, more than a year old … bones rotten and crumbling to dust -he compares this same body with it thus: ‘this body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.'"^[63]

The above passage from the Satipaṭṭhāna sutta vividly depicts the ensuing decomposition in altogether nine stages.^[64]

This exercise highlights two aspects: the repulsive nature of the body, revealed during the stages of its decay, and the fact that death is the inescapable destiny of all living beings. The former links this exercise to the contemplation of the body's anatomical constitution, serving as an additional tool for counteracting sensual desires.^[65] This suggestion finds support in the Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta, whichem-ploys the same set of terms as a way of contemplating the inherent ‘disadvantage' (ādīnava) in material bodies.^[66] Although one might be drawn to dwell on the ‘advantage' (assāda), the beautiful aspects of a body belonging to a young member of the opposite sex, yet the ‘disadvantage' becomes only too apparent once that same body has succumbed to old age, sickness, and finally to death, when this body, which formerly appeared so attractive, proceeds through the stages of decomposition described above. This passage confirms that a purpose of contemplating a corpse in decay is to counteract sensual desire.