Chapter 1.3 - Two premises of Buddhism

The first premise: All this (i.e., the empirical existence) is impermanent.

The second premise: All this (the empirical existence) is unsatisfactory or suffering.

The first is considered to be a statement of fact, and the second is a value judgement. However, the second is derivable from the first. This means two things: that one should not view the world as possessing some kind of permanence because suffering is subject to arising and suffering is subject to ceasing. Thus unsatisfactoriness, which is a product of suffering, also arises and ceases, being conditioned by various factors and is hence not an essence or something rigid but is itself impermanent. This status of the unsatisfactoriness actually led to Buddha’s first noble truth. And the acceptance of the impermanence of this suffering actually made it possible for the understanding two more truths: the identification of the cause of suffering, and the possibility of its cessation.

Though Buddha himself did not see his teachings as ‘philosophy’, but more as discourse that is practical to remove the suffering in life, his teachings can be better understood with the explanation of the following concepts. This is the fundamental mark of all things existing in this world. ‘Transitoriness’ is the fundamental property of all existent things: for all things come into being, persist for a time, and then pass out of being again. Without such impermanence, no change would be possible, and thus neither would liberation be possible. Anything that comes into existence, will also, one day, go out of existence.

It is the Buddha who made very substantial contribution by evolving the idea of Conditionality. According to him, a thing is conditioned if it arose depending on a cause, such as the arising of a sprout depends on the existence of the seed or depends on a ground of support, like burning of fire depends on the existence of fuel or depends on something else for its differentiation or definition. For eg., ‘shortness’ exists only in relation to ‘longness.’ All things that are temporary and conditioned are suffering or dukha. Encounter with unpleasant things are suffering but encounter with pleasant things are also suffering because they, being subject to conditioning, are subject to ending.

In fact, the fact of ‘suffering’ constitutes the first of Buddha’s fourfold truths or paths. After enlightenment, Buddha taught much of his life while wandering around the Gangetic basin. His teaching was in the local languages and dialects, and he spurned the use of Sanskrit, which only the elite priestly, Brahmanical class used. He taught with no distinction and associated with all classes of men and women. He shunned both forest life and life in the cities, preferring to reside and teach in the outskirts of the urban areas.

The teachings on the four-fold path are central to the teachings of Buddhism, and provide scope for some conceptual framework in the pragmatic Buddhist philosophy. These four truths provide an explanation of the nature of ‘dukha’, its causes, and how it can be overcome. They can be summarized as follows:

1. The truth of dukha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction)
2. The truth of the origin of dukha
3. The truth of the cessation of dukha
4. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukha

Dukha arises because of three main reasons:

• Suffering–due to illness, old age, dying/death
• Anxiety–of holding on to things that are continuously changing
• Dissatisfaction–with all forms and states due to the nature of all things being impermanent

The truth of the origin of dukha is that the origin can be known. The origin of dukha is commonly explained as ‘tanha’ or craving, conditioned by ‘avijja’ or ignorance. The truth of the cessation of dukha is that the complete cessation of dukha is possible. It is possible to put an end to such desire and thus rid oneself of suffering. When we realize the impermanence of things, one can attain a state called ‘nirvana’ or freedom, and this realization removes suffering. The truth of the path leading to nirvana is that there is a method available to us by which this cessation of dukha can be achieved. This way is the path that enables one to curtail attachment to transitory things and train oneself in proper modes of thought and behaviour to eventually achieve liberation. The eight limbs of the path describe behaviour that is known as ‘samayak’ or perfect, complete or right.

The idea of the human will had been reduced to a completely metaphysical concept (self or atman) by the Brahminical tradition. Then there was a group of ascetics who openly revolted against the metaphysical and ethical theories and advocated free will, and hence brought in some form of amoralism. Others questioned the validity of these moralistic and ethical values and brought in some form of materialism. Jainism accepted the atma, but not the Brahma, which is said to have brought in the caste system and all its evils. Hence the concept of action or kriya, without the association of caste, was brought in by Jainism. Thus, Buddha’s formulation of the nature of existence as arising conditionally or dependent origination manages to avoid the trap of both essence and permanence.

Buddhism spread far and wide in the north and eastern through the dynasties those ruled in India. The Chinese pilgrim traveler Yuan–chang (HiuenTsiang) observed that Buddhism was more popular among the masses. The wealth of Buddhist thought still continues to provide a new and dynamic inspiration to Indian aesthetics.”^[1] And again N.Gangulee adds “The extension of this spirit of humanism is the source of a vital bond of unity between India and her Asian neighbors,” Buddha’s teaching influences most of the Indian languages and though provincial literature being enriched by its message. And Western writers and Orientalists are much interested in the Eastern wisdom, especially the Buddhist thought which helps and eases the predicament of the human wilderness even now.

After the parinirvana of the blessed one, there were Buddhist councils to synthesize the teachings of Lord Buddha. The third council convened under the patron ship of Emperor Asoka at Pataliputra around 247B.C. Then a group of monks withdrew from the Gangatic plain to Madhura, who were conservative, and later became the Mahayanist sect. In this transition period of Theravada and Mahayana there had been many works sprang in philosophical and historical arena of Buddhist intellectual acme.^[2]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ibid., p. 113.

[2]:

Ibid., p. 136.