Dhyana in the Buddhist Literature

by Truong Thi Thuy La | 2011 | 66,163 words

This page relates ‘The Four Jhanas and Their Development’ of the study on Dhyana (‘meditation’ or ‘concentration’), according to Buddhism. Dhyana or Jhana represents a state of deep meditative absorption which is achieved by focusing the mind on a single object. Meditation practices constitute the very core of the Buddhist approach to life, having as its ultimate aim Enlightenment (the state of Nirvana).

2.2: (1c) The Four Jhānas and Their Development

[Full title: 2.2—Types of Meditation (1): Tranquility Meditation (Samatha-bhāvanā) (c): The Four Jhānas and Their Development]

Concentration meditation is designed to produce peace and tranquility of mind (cittaviveka) and stronger powers of will, which can be utilized for practical purposes in daily life. Through constant effort and perseverance the meditator may also be able to attain the higher mystic states called absorption (jhāna). There are eight stages of meditative absorption; the first four are the absorptions of form (rupajhana), and the remaining ones are formless absorptions (arupajhāna), the highest of which is known as the Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception. However, all these mystic states are created and conditioned by the mind. They are impermanent and still within the sphere of mundane realities.

The First Jhāna

In the Samyutta Nikāya, (SNL III.1) the Buddha taught:

Bhikkhus, there are these four jhānas. What four? Here, bhikkhus, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a bhikkhu enters and dwells in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion.[1]

According to Buddhaghosa:

Herein, quite secluded from sense desires means having secluded himself from, having become without, having gone away from, sense desires. Now this word quite (eva) should be understood to have the meaning of absoluteness. Precisely because it has the meaning of absoluteness it shows how on the actual occasion of entering upon and dwelling in the first jhāna sense desires as well as being non-existent then are the first jhāna’ s contrary opposite, and it also shows that the arrival takes place only (eva) through the letting go of sense desires. How? [2]

When absoluteness is introduced thus ‘quite secluded from sense desires,’ what is expressed is this: sense desires are certainly incompatible with this jhāna; when they exist, it does not occur, just as when there is darkness, there is no lamplight; and it is only by letting go of them that it is reached just as the further bank is reached by letting go of the near bank. That is why absoluteness is introduced.[3]

Here it might be asked: But why is this word ‘quite’ mentioned only in the first phrase and not in the second? How is this, might he enter upon and dwell in the first jhāna even when not secluded from unprofitable things? It should not be regarded in that way. It is mentioned in the first phrase as the escape from them; for this jhāna is the escape from sense desires since it surmounts the sense-desire element and since it is incompatible with greed for sense desires, according as it is said “The escape from sense desires is this, that is to say, renunciation.” [4] But in the second phrase the word eva should be adduced and taken as said, as in the passage “Bhikkhus, only (eva) here is there an ascetic, here a second ascetic.”[5] For it is impossible to enter upon and dwell in jhāna unsecluded also from unprofitable things in other words, the hindrances other than that [sense desire]. So this word must be read in both phrases thus: Quite secluded from sense desires, quite secluded from unprofitable things.’ And although the word ‘secluded’ as a general term includes all kinds of seclusion, that is to say, seclusion by substitution of opposites, etc., and bodily seclusion, etc., [6] still only the three, namely, bodily exclusion, mental seclusion and seclusion by suppression (suspension), should be regarded here.

But this term ‘sense desires’ should be regarded as including all kinds, that is to say, ‘sense-desires’ object given in the Niddesa in the passage beginning “What are sense-desires as object? They are agreeable visible objects...”[7] and the sense-desires as defilement given there too and in the Vibhaṅga thus: “Zeal as sense-desire (kāma), greed as sensedesire, zeal and greed as sense-desire, thinking as sense-desire, greed as sense-desire, thinking and greed as sense-desire.” (Nd 1.2; Vbh. 256). [8]

In the Middle Length Sayings, craving was also described as follows:

Sense-pleasures are said by the Lord to be of little satisfaction, of much pain, of much tribulation, wherein is more peril. Sense-pleasures are likened by the Lord to a skeleton, of much pain... sense-pleasures are likened by the Lord to a lump of meat... to a torch of dry grass... to a pit of glowing embers... to a dream... to something borrowed... to the fruits of a tree... to a slaughterhouse... to an impaling stake... Sense-pleasures are likened by the Lord to a snake’s head, of much pain, of much tribulation, where in is more peril. [9]

It is this “thirst,” desire, greed, craving, manifesting itself in various ways, that gives rise to all forms of suffering and the continuity of beings.[10]

Lord Buddha twenty six centuries ago said:

Craving that ensnares, that floats along, that is far–flung, that clings to one, by which this world is smothered, enveloped, tangled like a ball of thread, covered as with blight, twisted up like a grass–rope, so that it overpasses not the Constant Round (of birth), the Down-fall, the way of woe, the Ruin [11]

That being so, the words ‘quite secluded from sense desires’ properly mean ‘quite secluded from sense-desires as object,’ and express bodily seclusion, while the words ‘secluded from unprofitable things’ properly mean ‘secluded from sense-desires as defilement or from all unprofitable things’ and express mental seclusion. And in this case giving up of pleasure in sense-desires is indicated by the first since it only expresses seclusion from sense-desires as object, while acquisition of pleasure in renunciation is indicated by the second since it expresses seclusion from sense-desire as defilement.

And now, in order to show the factors associated with it, which is accompanied by applied and sustained thought is said. Herein, applied thinking (vitakkana) is applied thought (vitakka); hitting upon, is what is meant.[12] It has the characteristic of directing the mind onto an object (mounting the mind on its object). Its function is to strike at and thresh–for the meditator is said, in virtue of it, to have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied thought. It is manifested as the leading of the mind onto an object. Sustained thinking (vicaraṇa) is sustained thought (vicāra); continued sustainment (anusañcaraṇa), is what is meant. It has the characteristic of continued pressure on (occupation with) the object. Its function is to keep co-nascent [mental] states [occupied] with that. It is manifested as keeping consciousness anchored [on that object].

So this jhāna occurs together with this applied thought and this sustained thought; and it is called ‘accompanied by applied and sustained thought’ as a tree is called ‘accompanied by flowers and fruits’. But in the Vibhaṅga the teaching is given in terms of a person[13] in the way beginning ‘He is possessed, fully possessed, of this applied thought and ‘this sustained thought’[14]

Happiness and bliss: It refreshes (pīṇayati), thus it is happiness (pīti). It has the characteristic of endearing (sampiyāyana). Its function is to refresh the ‘body and the mind; or its function is to pervade (thrill with rapture). It is manifested as elation. But it is of five kinds as minor happiness, momentary happiness, showering happiness, uplifting happiness, and pervading (rapturous) happiness. [15]

Now this fivefold happiness, when conceived and matured, perfects the twofold tranquility, that is, bodily and mental tranquility. When tranquility is conceived and matured, it perfects the twofold bliss, that is, bodily and mental bliss. When bliss is conceived and matured, it perfects the threefold concentration, that is, momentary concentration, access concentration, and absorption concentration.

Of these, what is intended in this context by happiness is pervading happiness, which is the root of absorption and comes by growth into association with absorption.

Pleasing (sukhana) is bliss (sukha). Or alternatively: it thoroughly (Suṭṭhu) devours (khādati), consumes (khaṇati),[16] bodily and mental affliction, thus it is bliss (sukha). It has gratifying as its characteristic. Its function is to intensify associated states. It is manifested as aid.[17]

And wherever the two are associated, happiness is the contentedness at getting a desirable object, and bliss is the actual experiencing of it when got. Where there is happiness there is bliss (pleasure); but where there is bliss there is not necessarily happiness. Happiness is included in the formations aggregate; bliss is included in the feeling aggregate. If a man exhausted [18] in a desert saw or heard about a pond on the edge of a wood, he would have happiness; if he went into the wood’s shade and used the water, he would have bliss. And it should be understood that this is said because they are obvious on such occasions.

Enters upon (upasampajja): arrives at; reaches, is what is meant; or else, taking it as ‘makes enter (upasampādayitvā),’ then producing, is what is meant. In the Vibhaṅga this is said: “Enters upon”: the gaining, the regaining, the reaching ‘the arrival at, the touching, the realizing of, the entering ‘upon (upasampadā), the first jhāna,’[19] the meaning of which should be regarded in the same way.

And dwells in (viharati): by becoming possessed of jhāna of the kind described above through dwelling in a posture favorable to that [jhāna] he produces a posture, a procedure, a keeping, an enduring, a lasting behaviour, a dwelling, of the person. For this is said in the Vibhaṅga “Dwells in”: ‘poses, proceeds, keeps, endures, lasts, and behaves, dwells; hence “dwells” is said.’ [20]

When it has been attained in this way, the mode of its attainment must be discerned by the meditator as if he were a hair-splitter or a cook. And this has been said by the Blessed One:

Bhikkhus, suppose a wise, clever, skilful cook set various kinds of sauces before a king or a king’s minister, such as sour, bitter, sharp, sweet, peppery and unpeppery, salty and unsalty sauces;then the wise, clever, skilful cook learned his masters sign thus “today this sauce pleased my ‘master” or “he held out his hand for this one” or “he took a lot of this one” or “he praised this one” or “today the sour kind pleased my master” or “he held out his hand for ‘the sour kind” or “he took a lot of the sour kind” or “he praised the sour kind”... or “he praised the unsalty kind”;then the wise, clever, skilful cook is rewarded with clothing and wages and presents. Why is that? Because that wise, clever, skilful cook learned his master’s sign in this way. So too, bhikkhus, here a wise, clever, skilful bhikkhu dwells contemplating the body as a body,... He dwells contemplating feelings as feelings... consciousness as consciousness,... mental objects as mental objects, ardent, fully aware mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. As he dwells contemplating mental objects as mental objects, his mind becomes concentrated, his defilements are abandoned. He learns the sign of that. Then that wise, clever, skilful bhikkhu is rewarded with a happy abiding here and now, he is rewarded with mindfulness and full awareness. Why is that? Because that wise, clever, skilful bhikkhu learned his consciousness’s sign. [21]

The Second Jhāna

With the subsiding of thought and examination, he enters and dwells in the second jhāna, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture and happiness born of concentration. [22]

Herein, with the stilling of applied and with the surmounting, of these two, namely, applied thought and sustained thought; sustained thought: with the stilling, with their non-manifestation at the moment of the second jhāna, is what is meant. Herein, although none of the states belonging to the first jhāna exist in the second jhāna–for the contact, etc.,[23] in the first jhāna are one and here they are another–it should be understood all the same that the phrase ‘with the stilling of applied and sustained thought’ is expressed in this way in order to indicate that the attaining of the other jhānas, beginning with that of the second from the first, is effected by the surmounting of the gross factor in each case.

Confidence: it is faith that is called confidence. The jhāna ‘has confidence’ because it is associated with confidence as a cloth ‘has blue colour’ because it is associated with blue colour. Or alternatively, that jhāna is stated to ‘have confidence’ because it makes the mind confident with the confidence possessed by it and by stilling the disturbance created by applied and sustained thought. And with this conception of the meaning the word construction must be taken as ‘confidence of mind’. But with the first-mentioned conception of the meaning the words ‘of mind’ must be construed with ‘singleness.’[24]

Unique (eka) it comes up (udeti), thus it is single (ekodi); the meaning is, it comes up as the superlative, the best, because it is not overtopped by applied and sustained thought, for the best is called ‘unique’ an the world. Or it is permissible to say that when deprived of applied and sustained thought it is unique, without companion. Or alternatively: it evokes (udāyati) associated states, thus it is an evoker (udi); the meaning is, it arouses. And that is unique (eka) in the sense of best, and it is an evoker (udi), thus it is a unique evoker (ekodi = single). This is a term for concentration. Then, since the second jhāna gives existingness to (bhāveti), augments, this single [thing], it ‘gives singleness (ekodibhāva).’ But as this single [thing] is a mind’s, not a being’s or a soul’s so singleness of mind’ is said.[25]

Without applied thought, without sustained thought: since it has been abandoned by development, there is no applied thought in this, or of this, [jhāna], thus it is without applied thought. The same explanation applies to sustained thought. Also it is said in the Vibhaṅga: ‘so this applied thought ‘and this sustained thought are quieted, stilled, ‘set at rest, set quite at rest, done away with, and quite done away ‘with, [26] dried up, quite dried up, made an end of; hence it ‘is said: without applied thought, without sustained ‘thought.’ [27]

Here it may be asked: Has not this meaning already been established by the words ‘with the stilling of applied and sustained thought’? So why is it said again ‘without applied thought, without sustained thought’? It may be replied: Yes, that meaning has already been established. But this does not indicate that meaning. Did we not say earlier: ‘The phrase “with the stilling of applied and sustained thought” is expressed in this way in order to indicate that the act of attaining the other jhānas, beginning with that of the second from the first, is effected by the surmounting of the gross factor in each case’?

Born of concentration: born of the first jhāna concentration, or born of associated concentration, is the meaning. Herein, although the first was born of associated concentration too, still it is only this concentration that is quite worthy to be called ‘concentration’ because of its complete confidence and extreme immobility due to absence of disturbance by applied and sustained thought. So only this [ jhāna] is called ‘born of concentration,’ and that is in order to recommend it. With happiness and bliss is as already explained. Second: second in numerical series. Also second because entered upon second.

Once this has been obtained in this way, then on emerging from the now familiar second jhāna he can regard the flaws in it thus: This attainment is threatened by the nearness of applied and sustained thought; “Whatever there is in it of happiness, of mental excitement, proclaims its grossness”[28] and its factors are weakened by the grossness of the happiness so expressed. He can bring the third jhāna to mind as quieter and so end his attachment to the second jhāna and set about doing what is needed for attaining the third.

The Third Jhāna

With the fading away as well of rapture, he dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he experiences happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third jhana of which the noble ones declare: He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.[29] Herein, with the fading away of happiness as well (pītiyā ca virāgā): fading away is distaste for, or surmounting of, happiness of the kind already described. But the words ‘as well (ea)’ between the two [words pitiyā and virāgā] have the meaning of a conjunction; [30] they conjoin [to them] either the word ‘stilling’ or the expression ‘the stilling of applied and sustained thought’ [in the description of the second [ jhāna].[31]

He dwells in equanimity: it watches [things] as they arise (upapattito ikkhati), thus it is equanimity (upekkha–or onlooking); it sees fairly, sees without partiality (apakkhapatita), is the meaning. A possessor of the third jhāna is said to ‘dwell in equanimity since he possesses equanimity that is clear, abundant and sound.

Equanimity is of ten kinds: six-factored equanimity, equanimity as a divine abiding, equanimity as an enlightenment factor, equanimity of energy, equanimity about formations, equanimity as a feeling, equanimity about insight, equanimity as specific neutrality, equanimity of jhāna, and equanimity of purification. [32]

Herein, six-factored equanimity is a name for the equanimity in one whose cankers are destroyed. It is the mode of non-abandonment of the natural state of purity when desirable or undesirable objects of the six kinds come into focus in the six doors described thus: “Here a Bhikkhu whose cankers are destroyed is neither glad nor sad on seeing a visible object with the eye: he dwells in equanimity, mindful and fully aware.”[33]

Equanimity as a divine abiding is a name for equanimity consisting in the mode of neutrality to towards beings described thus: “He dwells intent upon one quarter with his heart endued with equanimity.”[34]

Equanimity as an enlightenment factor is a name for equanimity consisting in the mode of neutrality in co-nascent states described thus: “He develops the equanimity enlightenment factor depending on relinquishment.”[35]

Equanimity of energy is a name for the equanimity otherwise known as neither over-strenuous nor over-lax energy described thus: “From time to time he brings to mind the sign of equanimity.”[36]

Equanimity about formations is a name for equanimity consisting in neutrality about apprehending reflexion and composure regarding the hindrances, etc., described thus: ‘How many kinds of equanimity about formations arise through concentration? How many kinds of equanimity about formations arise through insight? Eight kinds of equanimity about formations arise through concentration. Ten kinds of equanimity about formations arise through insight.’[37]

Equanimity as feeling is a name for the equanimity known as neither-pain-nor-pleasure described thus: “On the occasion on which a sense-sphere profitable consciousness has arisen accompanied by equanimity.”[38]

Equanimity about insight is a name for equanimity consisting in neutrality about investigation described thus: “What exists, what has become, that he abandons, and he obtains equanimity.”[39]

Equanimity as specific neutrality is a name for equanimity consisting in the equal efficiency of states: it is contained among the ‘orwhatever states’ beginning with zeal.[40]

Equanimity of jhāna is a name for equanimity producing impartiality towards even the highest bliss described thus: “He dwells in equanimity.”[41]

Purifying equanimity is a name for equanimity purified of all opposition, and so consisting in uninterestedness in stilling opposition described thus: “The fourth jhāna, which... has mindfulness purified by equanimity.”[42]

Now as to mindful and fully aware: here, he remembers. (sarati), thus he is mindful (sata);He has full-awareness (sampajānāti), thus he is fully aware (sampajānāti). This is mindfulness and full-awareness stated as personal attributes. Herein, mindfulness has the characteristic of remembering. Its function is not to forget. It is manifested as guarding. Full-awareness has the characteristic of non-confusion. Its function is to investigate (judge). It is manifested as scrutiny.

As to the clause he feels bliss with his body: here although in one actually possessed of the third jhāna there is no concern about feeling bliss, nevertheless he would feel the bliss associated with his mental body, and after emerging from the jhāna he would also feel bliss since his material body would have been affected by the exceedingly superior matter originated by that bliss associated with the mental body. It is in order to point to this meaning that the words ‘he feels bliss with his body’ are said.

Now, as to the clause that... on account of which the Noble Ones announce: He dwells in bliss who has equanimity and is mindful: here it is the jhāna, on account of which as cause, on account of which as reason, the Noble Ones, that is to say, the Enlightened Ones, etc., ‘announce, teach, declare establish, reveal, expound; explain, clarify’ [43] that person who possesses the third jhāna, they praise, is what is intended. Why? Because of ‘He dwells in bliss who has equanimity and is mindful. He enters upon and dwells in that third jhāna.’

Once this has been obtained in this way, then on emerging from the now familiar third jhāna, he can regard the flaws in it thus. This attainment is threatened by the nearness of happiness; “Whatever there is in it of mental concern about bliss proclaims its grossness” [44] and its factors are weakened by the grossness of the bliss so expressed. He can bring the fourth jhāna to mind as quieter and so end his attachment to the third jhāna and set about doing what is needed for attaining the fourth.

The Fourth Jhāna

With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous passing away of joy and displeasure, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. These are the four jhānas.

Herein, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain is with the abandoning of bodily pleasure and bodily pain. With the previous: which took place before, not in the moment of the fourth jhāna? Disappearance of joy and grief: with the previous disappearance of the two, that is, mental bliss (pleasure) and mental pain; with the abandoning, is what is meant. But when does the abandoning of these take place? At the moment of access of the four jhānas. For [mental] joy is only abandoned at the moment of the fourth jhāna access, while [bodily] pain, [mental] grief, and [bodily] bliss (pleasure) are abandoned respectively at the moments of access of the first, second, and third jhānas. So although the order in which they are abandoned is not actually mentioned, nevertheless the abandoning of the pleasure, pain, joy, and grief, is stated here according to the order in which the faculties are summarized in the Indriya Vibhaṅga.[45]

But if these are only abandoned at the moments of access of the several jhānas, why is their cessation said to take place in the jhāna itself in the following passage:

And where does the arisen pain faculty cease without remainder? Here, Bhikkhus, quite secluded from sense desires, secluded from unprofitable things, a Bhikkhu enters upon and dwells in the first jhāna, which is... born of seclusion. It is here that the arisen pain faculty ceases without remainder... Where does the arisen grief faculty cease without remainder?... in the second jhāna... Where does the arisen pleasure faculty [cease without remainder?... in the third jhana... Where does the arisen joy faculty cease without remainder? Here, Bhikkhus, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain [and with the previous disappearance of joy and grief a Bhikkhu enters upon and dwells in the fourth jhāna, which... has mindfulness purified by equanimity. It is here that the arisen joy faculty ceases without remainder.[46]

It is said in that way there referring to reinforced cessation. For in the first jhāna, etc., it is their reinforced cessation, not just their cessation that takes place. At the moment of access it is just their cessation, not their reinforced cessation that takes place.

Which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure: no pain owing, to absence of pain; no pleasure owing to absence of pleasure (bliss)? By this he indicates the third kind of feeling that is in opposition both to pain and to pleasure, not the mere absence of pain and pleasure. This third kind of feeling named ‘neither-pain-nor-pleasure’ is also called ‘equanimity’. It has the characteristic of experiencing what is contrary to both the desirable and the undesirable. Its function is neutral. Its manifestation is unevident. Its proximate cause should be understood as the cessation of pleasure (bliss).[47]

And has purity of mindfulness due to equanimity: has purity of mindfulness brought about by equanimity. For the mindfulness in this, jhāna is quite purified, and its purification is effected by equanimity, not by anything else. That is why it is said to have purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. Also it is said in the Vibhaṅga: “This mindfulness is cleared, purified, clarified, by equanimity; hence it is said to have purity of mindfulness due to equanimity”[48] And the equanimity due to which there comes to be this purity of mindfulness should be understood as specific neutrality in meaning. And not only mindfulness is purified by it here, but also all associated states. However, the teaching is given under the heading of mindfulness.

Herein, this equanimity exists in the three lower jhānas too; but just as, although a crescent moon exists by day but is not purified or clear since it is outshone by the sun’s radiance in the daytime or since it is deprived of the night, which is its ally owing to gentleness and owing to helpfulness to it, so too, this crescent moon of equanimity consisting in specific neutrality exists in the first jhāna, etc., but it is not purified since it is outshone by the glare of the opposing states consisting in applied thought, etc., and since it is deprived of the night of equanimity-as-feeling for its ally; and because it is not purified, the mindfulness and other states are not purified either, like the unpurified crescent moon’s radiance by day. That is why no one among these [first three jhānas] is said to have purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. But here this crescent moon consisting in specific neutrality is utterly pure, because it is not outshone by the glare of the opposing states consisting in applied thought, etc., and because it has the night of equanimity-as-feeling for its ally. And since it is purified, the mindfulness and other states are purified and clear also, like the purified crescent moon’s radiance that, it should be understood, is why only this jhāna is said to have purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.[49]

Therefore, the Buddha taught:

Bhikkhus, just as the river Ganges flows, slopes, and inclines towards the east, so too a bhikkhu who develops and cultivates the four jhānas flows, slopes, and inclines towards Nibbāna. [50]

In short, there are four stages of meditative absorption; from the first to four as above mentioned, and besides there are various four stages of meditative absorption which is known as the Base Consisting of Boundless Space; the Base Consisting of Boundless Consciousness; the Base Consisting of Nothingness and the Base Consisting of NeitherPerception-nor-Non-Perception as mentioned in the texts.

However, all these mystic states, according to the Buddha, are mind-created, mind-produced, conditioned ( saṃkhata).[51] They have nothing to do with Reality, Truth, Nirvāṇa. This form of meditation existed before the Buddha. Hence it is not purely Buddhist, but it is not excluded from the field of Buddhist meditation. However it is not essential for the realization of Nivvāna. The Buddha himself, before his Enlightenment, studied these yogic practices under different teachers and attained to the highest mystic states; but he was not satisfied with them, because they did not give complete liberation, they did not give insight into the Ultimate Reality. He considered these mystic states only as ‘happy living in this existence’ (ditthadhammasukhavihāra), or ‘peaceful living’ (santavihāra), and nothing more.

He therefore discovered the other form of ‘meditation’ known as Vipassanā (Insight).

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

SNL III.1

[2]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV.80.

[3]:

Ibid., Ch IV.81.

[4]:

Dīgha-Nikāya III. p. 275.

[5]:

Majjihima-Nikāya I. p. 63.

[6]:

The five (see e.g. Ps.II, 220; MA. I, 85) are suppression (by concentration), substitution of opposites (by insight), cutting off (by the path), tranquilization (by fruition), and escape (as Nibbāna); cf. five kinds of deliverance (e.g. MA.IV, 168). The three (see e.g. Ndi. 26; MA.II, 143) are bodily seclusion (retreat), mental seclusion (jhāna) and seclusion from the substance or circumstances of becoming (Nibbāna).

[7]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 83.

[8]:

Here ‘sankappa (thinking)’ has the meaning of ‘hankering’. Chanda kāma and rāga, and their combinations need sorting out. Chanda (zeal, desire) is much used, neutral in colour, good or bad according to context and glossed by ‘desire to act’; technically also one of the four Roads to Power and four Predominances. Kāma (sense-desire, sensuality) loosely represents enjoyment of the five sense pleasures (e.g. sense-desire sphere). More narrowly it refers to sexual enjoyment (third of the Five Precepts). Distinguished as subjective desire (defilement) and objective things that arouses it (Nd I. I; cf. Ch. XIV, n. 36). The figure ‘five cords of sensedesire’ signifies simply these desires with the five-sense objects that attract them. Rāga (greed) is the general term for desire in its bad sense and identical with lobha, which latter, however appears technically as one of the three root-causes of unprofitable action. Rāga is renderable also by ‘lust’ in its general sense. Kāmacchanda (lust): a technical term for the first of the five Hindrances. Chanda-rāga (zeal and greed) and kāma-rāga (greed for sense-desires) have no technical use. (The Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosācāriya IV. 83.)

[9]:

The Book of Middle Length Sayings I. p. 168.

[10]:

Walpola Rahula 1959: 29.

[11]:

The Book of Gradual Saying II. p. 225; Aṅguttara-Nikāya II. pp. 211-212. Tanham vo, bhikkhave, desessāmi jālinimsaritamvisatam visattikam yāya ayam loko uddhasto pariyonadho tantākulakajāto gulāgundikajāto munjababbajabhuto apāyamduggatim vinipatam samsāram nātivattati, tam sunātha sādhukam manasikarotha bhāsissāmìti....

[12]:

Uhana–hitting upon’: possibly connected with ūhanati (to disturb–see Majjihima-Nikāya I, 243;II.193). Obviously connected here with the meaning of āhananapariyāhanana (striking and threshing) in the next line.

[13]:

Puggalādhiṭṭhāna–in terms of a person’; a technical commentarial term for one of the ways of presenting a subject. They are dhammadesanā (discourse about principles), and puggadesanā (discourse about persons), both of which may be treated either as dhammādhiṭṭhāna (in terms of principles) or puggalādhiṭṭhāna (in terms of persons). See The Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosācāriya IV. 92.

[14]:

The Vibhaṅga 257.

[15]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 94.

[16]:

For this word play see also Ch. XVII, 48. Khaṇati is only given its normal meaning of ‘to dig’ in P. T. Saṃyutta-Nikāya Dict. There seems to be some confusion of meaning with khayati (to destroy) here, perhaps suggested by khadati (to eat). This suggests a rendering here and in Ch. XVII of ‘to consume’ which makes sense. Glossed by avadāriyati; to break or dig: not in P. T. Saṃyutta-Nikāya Dict. see T. C. P. Dict. avadārana.’

[17]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 100.

[18]:

Kantāra-khinna–exhausted in a desert’; khinna is not in P. T. Saṃyutta-Nikāya Dict.

[19]:

The Vibhaṅga 257

[20]:

The Vibhaṅga 252

[21]:

S.V. pp. 151-2

[22]:

Saṃyutta-Nikāya L III. 1

[23]:

Majjihima-Nikāya III. 25

[24]:

In the Pāli, sampasādanam cetaso ekodibhāvam,’ ‘cetaso (of mind)’ comes between ‘sampasādanaṃ (confidence)’ and ‘ekodibhāvaṃ (singleness)’ and so can be construed with either.

[25]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 143.

[26]:

Appita done away with’: ‘“Appitāti vināsaṃ gamitā (Appita means made to go to annihilation).’ This meaning, though not in P.T.Saṃyutta-Nikāya Dict., is given in T.C.P. Dict.

[27]:

The Vibhaṅga 258

[28]:

Dīgha-Nikāya I. 37.

[29]:

Saṃyutta-Nikāya L III.1

[30]:

sampiṇḍana–conjunction’: gram term for the word ca (and). This meaning not given in P.T.Saṃyutta-Nikāya Dict.

[31]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 154.

[32]:

Ibid. 156.

[33]:

Aṅguttara-Nikāya III. 279.

[34]:

Dīgha-Nikāya I. 251.

[35]:

M.I. 11.

[36]:

Aṅguttara-Nikāya I. 257.

[37]:

The ‘eight kinds’ are those connected with the eight jhāna attainments. The ‘ten kinds’ are those connected with the four paths, the four fruitions, the void liberation, and the singleness liberation.

[38]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 162.

[39]:

Ibid. 163.

[40]:

Ibid. 164.

[41]:

The Vibhaṅga 245.

[42]:

Ibid.

[43]:

Ibid. 259.

[44]:

Dīgha-Nikāya I. 37.

[45]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 184-5.

[46]:

S.V. 213-5

[47]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 193.

[48]:

The Vibhaṅga 261.

[49]:

The Path of Purification Ch IV. 195.

[50]:

Saṃyutta-Nikāya L III.1

[51]:

Notice that all the spiritual and mystic states, however pure and high they may be, are mental creations, mind-made, conditioned and compound (saṃkhata). They are not Reality, not Truth (sacca).

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