1.1: Introducing the Problem

India is a country in which philosophies and religions are extremely rich and varied. There are some fundamental theories or concepts such as God, karma, dhyāna, etc., which, on the one hand, run throughout philosophies and religions and have been by no means unfamiliar to all Indian thought and faith. This fact could also be certainly seen from Max Muller’s statement when he studied the systems of Indian philosophies. It runs: “The longer I have studied the various systems, the more have I become impressed with the truth of the view taken by Vijñānabhikśu and others that there is behind the variety of the six systems a common bond of what may be called national or popular philosophy.” ^[1] On the other hand, every system of philosophy or religion in due course appears to have undergone some phase of change, transformations, or transmissions in order to meet some new challenges for, it’s the well-being and developments of human being a religion or philosophy is concerned with. Especially it is very true about the Buddhist meditation in India, too. The Buddhist meditation, to some extent, has derived its roots from pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist traditions. As professor Winston L. King remarks in his well-read book, “Theravāda meditation”: “Because Buddhism derives from Indian (Brahmanical-yogic) spirituality and meditation methodology, an alien, or non-Buddhist element exists in the orthodox “Theravāda meditation structure.”^[2]

Thus, an attempt to understand the Buddhist meditation in India should be attempted comprehensively and systematically so that the whole picture of Buddhist meditation, which is not only important to Buddhism itself, but also very significant to Indian meditation in general will be clear.

As far as our knowledge goes, it is quite clear that before Buddhism came into existence in India, a system of meditation had been introduced and established firmly by other religions and philosophies such as Brahmanism, Hinduism, or Jainism, and in helping their followers to realize the Ultimate Truth, or the Brahman. Therefore, it is very necessary and reasonable to study non-Buddhist meditation in theory and practice in a comprehensive way which will facilitate a proper understanding of the Buddhist meditation at large.

Buddhism in India has been divided into two main streams according to some scholars: ^[3]

The first one is called Hīnayāna school including two primary periods: from Buddha’s Enlightenment to His Mahāparinirvāṇa, known as Theravāda or Early Buddhism; and after Mahāparinirvāṇa and before the advance of Mahāyāna Buddhism, known as Sectarian Buddhism.

And, the second is Mahāyāna school or Developing Buddhism. In Hīnayāna Buddhism also, there are also many sub-Sects which are recorded in Nalinaksha Dutt’s book: “Buddhist Sects In India.” ^[4] Thus, a comprehensive inquiry into the theory and practice of Buddhist meditation in such a quite complex and divided Buddhism is made in the present work.

More crucial than what have been mentioned above, examined in the present thesis, is a very basic issue concerning the ultimate purpose or primary role played by the Buddha’s teachings in general and by the Buddhist meditation in particular. As the Buddha has obviously declared in Buddhist Canons (Pāli and Sanskrit) that he has only preached the suffering (dukkha) and the way leading to complete cessation of suffering (duḥkhanirodha). Especially in Nikāyas as well as in Āgamas, He has clearly emphasized that the goal of meditation or practicing it: “is the one way for purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrows and grieves, for the going down of suffering and miseries, for winning the right path, and for realizing Nirvāṇa.”^[5] To Buddhism, meditation is the only solution for both escaping from suffering and attaining the ultimate Truth, i.e., Nirvāṇa. According to the Buddha, the purpose may be achieved in the very world it self by any one who really wants to practice the meditation continuously in daily life. Buddhist meditation could also help to attain the state of balance between our body and mind, which is extremely important to mankind.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Q.v. S.Radhakrishnan: Indian Philosophy, vol. II, p. 24.

[2]:

Winston L. King: Theravāda Meditation, Delhi, 1992, p. viii.

[3]:

For further references, see: P.V. Bapat, 2500 Years of Buddhism, Delhi, 1997.

[4]:

Nalinaksha Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, Delhi, 1998, p. 57.

[5]:

The Majjhima Nikāya, Ed. V. Trinker and R. Chelmers, 3 Vols, Pāli Text Society, London, 1883-1896, Tr, I. B. Hormer, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Pāli Text Society, London, 1954-1990, Vol. I, p. 71.