Part 6 - Introduction to the Mahāyāna Sūtras

Mahāyāna is a Sanskrit term denoting a movement in Buddhism begun around 200 B.C.E. in India and identifying itself as the “Great Vehicle”. The early stage of the origins of this movement are still unclear and many controversial issues remain to be solved. It offered a new literature, initially identified as Prajñjāpāramitā or “Perfection of Wisdom”.^[1]

J K Nariman observes:

“There is no canon of Mahāyāna, and there can be none because of the Mahāyāna represents no unity of sects.^[2]

The most important portion of the Buddhist literature in Sanskrit includes Mahāyāna Sūtras. The Sūtras are the discourses ascribed to Buddha. It is a type of religious literature present in many Asian tradition such as Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. The Mahāyāna Sūtras are a wide category of Buddhist scriptures that various traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism take as canonical. They are largely conserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibetan Buddhist canon and in extant Sanskrit manuscripts. The word sūtra is a combination of “su”which is a prefix and “tra”which is a root word. According to the Buddhist tradition the prefix “su” denotes good, well, proper; the root “tra”yields the word trāna which means crossing or going beyond (the saṃsāra). From this stand point, sūtra is that which protects well and is the cause of deliverance (mukti). The essential significance of Buddha’s discourse called Sūtra is that it teaches us a method of going beyond the cycle of repeated existences^[3], The Mahāyāna Sūtras are considered as the legacy Buddha. The early versions of the Mahāyāna Sūtras were orally preserved teachings. The origin of the Mahāyāna Sūtras are not completely understood. Early versions of the Mahāyāna Sūtras are not written documents but orally conserved teachings. The verses are collected to memory and recited by the monks in the monasteries. It can assume that Mahāyāna Sūtras are an anonymous literature, it cannot be determined by whom they were written. It can be dated to the period when they were translated into another language. Unfortunately, there are no sufficient evidences which show the facts such as time ads authorship of the sūtra or who compiled the texts. It is widely accepted that Mahāyāna Sūtras started to appear from first century BCE. Some scholars considered that earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras to include the very first versions of prajñāpāramita series, which were probably composed in the first century BCE.

1 The Characteristics of Mahāyāna Sūtras.

The most important characteristics of a Buddhist Sūtra is that it deals with the Dharma or Law. The Sūtras are studied, recited and revered because they inspire good ideas and conduct; they awaken and guide human mind and prepare it for the supreme quest. Sūtras are authoritative not only because they have been proclaimed by Buddha, but also because they promote human welfare and show the way to the ultimate release.^[4] The following are main characteristic of a Mahāyāna Sūtra:

They are meaningful, they discuss virtue, they eliminate of passions and they describe the qualities if and praise of nirvāṇa. The Sūtras open with words evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ meaning “thus I have heard”. Thus, a Sūtra text gives a teaching of the teacher or Buddha. The Sūtras are sometimes termed as Śāstras because they contain the authoritative teachings of Dharma. A Sutta or Sūtra is perhaps so called because like the thread of a garland of flowers it contains gems in the form of Buddha’s teachings. The word Sutta may also be a form of Suvutta or Sūtrānta and it refers to a type of Buddhist sacred texts, one of the nine or twelve types.^[5]

2 Important Mahāyāna Sūtras

Amitābha Sūtra: One of the three sūtras doctrinal basis of the Pure land school^[6]. The two other Sūtras are Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra and Sukhāvativyūha Sūtra. These three texts are known as Pure land Sūtras.

Avataṃśaka Sūtra: This sūtra is compilation of number of independent sūtras on various topics. The sūtra describes numerous Buddhas and Buddha fields which are said to be infinite, representing a vast cosmic view of reality. It discusses the highest teachings of Buddha to Bodhisattva and other high spiritual beings.

Brahmajāla Sūtra: This Sūtra is composed in Sanskrit and translated into Chinese in 5^th century C.E. Brahmajāla Sūtra introduces Vairocana Buddha and his relationship to Śākyamuni Buddha. It discusses the ten major precepts of Bodhisattvas and the minor precepts to follow to advance the Bodhisattva path.

Daśabhūmika Sūtra: This Sūtra appears as the twenty-sixth chapter of Avataṃśaka Sūtra. It describes ten stages of progress that a Bodhisattva must go through in order to achieve full enlightenment and Buddhahood.

Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra: Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra is composed in 200 to 300 CE, and was later added as last chapter of Avataṃśaka Sūtra. It describes the spiritual pilgrimage of a disciple Sudhana, in his search for enlightenment.

Karaṇḍvyūha Sūtra: This text is compiled between fourth century CE and fifth century CE. This Sūtra has been used as the source for both teaching and practicing Buddhism in different Mahāyā schools. Karaṇḍavyūha Sūtra praises the virtues and powers of Avalokiteśvara and it introduced the mantra Om maṇi padme hum in to sūtra tradition.

Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra: It is a distinctive and influential discourse in the Mahāyāna sūtra tradition. Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra narrates a teaching primarily between Gautama Buddha and Mahāmati bodhisattva. Here Buddha preached the sūtra in the mythical city Laṅkā. The thought of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is reflected in Yogācāra school of Buddhism.

Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra: The original Sanskrit version of the sūtra has survived only in a number fragment. These fragments were discovered from Central Asia, Afghanistan and Japan. The probable date of this sūtra is second century CE. Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra is an eschatological text.^[7]

Prajñāpāramita Sūtra: Prajñāpāramita is a central concept of Mahāyāna literature. The word Prajñāpāramita literally means “The Perfect Wisdom” (prajñā means wisdom and pāramita means perfection).

“Although the term “pāramita”appears in various Theravāda sects,it is in Mahāyāna that the notion of perfection becomes an important part of philosophy. The concept appears early in the Prajñāpāramita literature point out six pāramitās. They are dāna (offering), śīla (morality), kṣānti (patience), vīrya (vigor), dhyāna (meditation), and prajñā (wisdom). Later, four additional perfections were added to these pāramitās. They are: upāya (skill in means), praṇidhāna (vow), bala (power) and jñāna(knowledge). These ten pāramitās are interrelated with ten stages of the Bodhisattva path, each perfection corelated with a distinct stage (bhūmi)”^[8].

According to Edward Conze:

“The composition of Prajñāpāramita text extended over about thousand years. The development of composition can be distinguished in four stages. They are:1. The elaboration of a basic text (100 B.C.E to 100 C.E.), which constitutes the original impulse; 2. The development of that text (100 C.E to 300 C.E); 3. The restatement of the doctrine in short Sūtras and in versified Summaries (300 C.E to 500 C.E); 4. The period of Tantric influence and of absorption into magic (600 C.E. to 1200 C.E.).”^[9]

The place of origin of Prajñāpāramita is controversial. It probably developed among the Mahāsāṅghikas in South India.^[10]

List important Prajñāpāramita Sūtras Ordinary Prajñāpāramita Sūtras

Śatasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 100,000 lines)

Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines)

Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 18,000 Lines)

Daśasāhaśrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 10,000 Lines)

Aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 8000 Lines)

Suvikrāntavikrāmi paripṛccha prajñāpāramitā sūtra or Sārddhadvisāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin)

Saptaśatikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 700 Lines)

Vajracchedikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Diamond Sūtra)

Prajñāpāramitā ardhaśatikā (The Perfection of Wisdom in 50 Lines)

Buddhabhāṣita nīta artha prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Sūtra which gives the Direct Meaning of Perfect Wisdom)

Prajñāpāramitā hṛdaya sūtra (The Heart Sūtra)

Nāgaśrīparipṛcchā (The Questions of Nāgasrī)

Special Texts

Kāruṇikā rāja prajñāpāramitā sūtra (Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra Explaining how Benevolent Kings may Protect Their Countries)

Pañcapāramitānirdeśa (Explanation of The Five Perfections)

The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, spoken by the Buddha, which awakens to enlightenment about one’s true nature. (Sanskrit title is not available)

Tantric Texts

Adhyardhaśatikā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in 150 Lines)

Svalpākṣarā prajñāpāramitā sūtra (Perfect Wisdom in a few words)

Kauśika prajñāpāramitā sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom for Kauśika)

Prajñāpāramitā Sūryagarbha mahāyāna sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom for Sūryagarbha)

Candragarbha prajñāpāramitā mahāyāna sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom for Candragarbha)

Prajñāpāramitā Samantabhadra mahāyāna sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom for Samantabhadra)

Prajñāpāramitā Vajrapāṇi mahāyāna sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom for Vajrapāṇi)

Prajñāpāramitā Vajraketu mahāyāna sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom for Vajraketu)

Prajñāpāramitā nāma aṣṭaśatakā (The 108 marks of Perfect Wisdom)

Pañcaviṃśati prajñāpāramitā mukha (The 25 doors of Perfect Wisdom)

Explanation of the Dhāriṇīs of the Ninno (Sanskrit name is not available)

Rules for the Ceremonial Reciting of the Dhāraṇīs of the Ninno (Sanskrit name is not available).

The Dhāraṇīs from the Dhāraṇīs from the Dhāraṇīsaṃgrahas.

It includes very short dhāraṇīs. They are:—

A. Prajñāpāramitā nāma dhāraṇī or Āryaprajñāpāramitā dhāraṇī or Prajñāpāramitā sahasra dhāraṇī.
B. Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā mantra
C. Aṣṭasāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā mantra
D. Vajracchedikāhṛdaya
E. Aṣṭasāhasrikā hṛdayas

Prajñāpāramitā hṛdaya dhāṛaṇī (The Dhāraṇī of The Heart of Perfect Wisdom)

Ārya saptaślokikā Bhagavatī Prajñāpāramitā nāma sūtra (The Perfection of Wisdom in Seven Verses)

Bhagavatī prajñāpāramitā sarva Tathāgata mātā ekākṣarā nāma. (Perfect Wisdom in One Letter)

The Great Heart Sūtra of The Great Perfection of Wisdom. (Sanskrit name is not available)

Method of Making an Image of The Prajñāpāramitā. (Sanskrit name is not available)

Rules on the Places of Worship and the Chanting of the Literature of the Ninno. (Sanskrit name is not available)

Prajñāpāramitā sādhana (Evocation of the Perfection of Wisdom).

Prajñāpāramitā maṇḍala vidhi (The Maṇḍala of the Perfection of Wisdom).

Ritual Concerning a Maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā (Sanskrit name is not available)

Śrīvajramaṇḍalālaṃkāramahātantrarāja (Some of the Teaching About the Vajramaṇḍalavyūha prajñāpāramitā).

Sūtra of the Contemplation of the Bodhisattva Prajñāpāramitā, Mother of the Buddha.

(Sanskrit name is not available).

Ritual of the Contemplation of Prajñā, Mother of the Buddha. (Sanskrit name is not available)

Ratnakūṭa Sūtra: This Sūtra contains 49 texts of varying length. These texts seem to have been collected over a number of centuries, the varying subjects indicates the historical evolutions between major eras of Buddhist thoughts.

Śūrāgama Sūtra: [=Śūraṅgama?] This text especially influential in Chan Buddhism.^[11] The main doctrine of Śūrāgama sūtra is esoteric Buddhism and Buddha-nature, influenced by Yogācāra School. This Sūtra concentrates on meditation, moral discipline, Buddhist cosmology, development of samādhi etc.

Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra: The sūtra is originally written in Sanskrit in India. It translated several times into Chinese and later translated into Tibetan and other languages. The date of the origin of the sūtra is not known. The sūtra explains the vows of goddesses Sarasvatī, Lakṣmī and Dṛḍhā.

Vimalakīrti Sūtra: The sūtra is dates from first or second century CE. In Vimalakīrti Sūtra basic mahāyāna principles are presented in the form of a conversation between Vimalakīrti, a lay devotee who attained perfect wisdom and Bodhisattvas.

This chapter focuses on the development and transitions of Buddhist literature from the Pāli Piṭaka literature to Mahāyāna Sūtra literature. In this long period of time, Buddhist literature went through many changes not only in style or language, also in ideas that are conveyed through the literature.

Early Buddhist literature focused more on philosophical aspects. Worship and other religious practices were never in concern. According to Theravāda Buddhism, nirvāṇ or perfect state of enlightenment comes with the recognition that the world is full of sufferings. Attainment of perfect enlightenment ends the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. In Mahāyāna Sūtra literature listening, propagation and worshiping the Sūtra are recommended for attaining the state of perfect enlightenment.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Charles S Prebish, Damien Keon, Introducing Buddhism, (New York: Routledge, 2016), 97.

[2]:

J K Nariman, Literary History of Indian Buddhism,64.

[3]:

Sanghasen Singh, 112.

[4]:

Ibid,113.

[5]:

Ibid.

[6]:

Pure land Buddhism is one of the most popular branches of Mahayana Buddhism in eastern Asia. Pure land school focused on Buddha Amithabha and his rebirths.

[7]:

Eschatology is a part of theology concerned with the final destiny of the soul and humankind.

[8]:

Prebish S Charles, Keown Damien, Introducing Buddhism, 98.

[9]:

Edward Conze, The Prajñāpāramita Literatre,(Delhi:Mnshiram Manoharlal Pblishers, 2017), 31

[10]:

Ibid.

[11]:

Chan Buddhism is a Chinese school of Zen Buddhism developed from the 6^th century CE onwards.