Buddhist Sutra literature (study)

by Gopika G | 2022 | 25,006 words

This page relates ‘Introduction to Pali Literature’ of the study on the Buddhist Sutra literature with special reference to the Saddharma-Pundarika (otherwise known as the Lotus Sutra) and other Mahayana Sutras. Throughout, the thesis aims to enhance understanding of the religious, cultural, and mythological significance of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra within Mahayana Buddhism

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Part 1 - Introduction to Pāli Literature

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Teachings of Buddha had a great influence on the society of his time. His teachings brought many changes in his society. The history of Buddhism is the history of a changing society. Peter Harvey observes; “the history of Buddhism is the history of development of religious thoughts in India in sixth and seventh century before Christian era. Those centuries will ever be memorable for the intellectual excitements created by the close applications of human reason to the solution of the great problem of life and death. Buddhism is one of the great missionary religions of the world and it has pursued actively to spread its message and practice beyond the culture where it originated. Their membership is not confined to any specific ethnic group. Buddhism has sought to make available an invitation tries out its way. Indeed, it describes its teaching and path as “come-see-ish” and monks have traditionally not been allowed to teach to a new audience unless they have been invited to do so.^[1] Buddha’s entire works passed on by oral communication. Disciples were not allowed to write down notes while he is speaking. Buddha took classes for monks in monasteries and he used to deliver speech for laymen outside. He spoke in regional language like everyone around him. The drive to spread Buddhist message goes back to a time in Buddha’s life when his disciples had come to include sixty monks who were Arhats like himself: people who had fully experienced Nirvāṇa and destroyed all attachments hatred and delusion. He sends out these enlighten disciples to propagate his philosophy.^[2] After the Mahāparinirvāṇa of Buhhda his disciples collected and codified his teachings. These advices are seen in Pāli Tipiṭakas.

Pāli Tripiṭakas represents the earliest and most comprehensive collection of Buddhist sacred literature. The tipiṭaka is a wide frame of Canonical Pāli literature in which are preserved the teachings of Buddha from the time of his Enlightenment to his parinirvāṇa. The word piṭaka literally means baskets. Hence the Tipiṭaka means three baskets or three separate divisions of the Buddha’s teachings.^[3] The discourses of Buddha cover a wide range of subjects and are made up of advices, discussions and orders. At the time of Buddha his teachings were passed on through oral transmission. After the parinirvāṇa of Buddha his great disciples gathered their Master’s teachings and systematically classified them under different heads into specific sections.

These teachings are enshrined in three systematic collections:

the Sutta Piṭaka,
the Vinaya Piṭaka,
the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.

1. Sutta Piṭka

Sutta Piṭaka includes the basic doctrinal section of the Buddhist canon. The general discourses and sermons proposed both bhikkus and lay disciples are collected in Sutta Piṭaka. The Sutta Piṭaka explains the meanings of the Buddha’s teachings.

The Sutta Piṭaka is divided into five separate collections called Nikāya. They are:

1.1. Dīgha Nikāya

Dīgha Nikāya (Long Collection) contains 34 long suttas including doctrinal exposition, legends and moral rules. It is divided into three divisions. They are; Sīlakkhandha Vagga Pāli (division concerning morality), Mahā Vagga Pālī (large division), Pāthika Vagga Pāli. (the division beginning with the sermon on Pāthika).

Sīlakkhandha Vagga Pāli

Sīlakkhandha Vagga Pāli consisting of thirteen suttas. These suttas deals with various type of morality which are mostly practiced by Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas. The thirteen suttas of Sīlakkhandha Pāli are: Brahmajāla Sutta, Sāmaññaphala Sutta, Ambaṭṭha Sutta, Soṇadanda Sutta, Kūṭadanta Sutta, Mahāli Sutta, Jāliya Sutta, Māhasīhanāda Sutta, Poṭṭhapāda Sutta, Subha Sutta, Kevaṭṭa Sutta, Lohicca Sutta and Tevijja Sutta.

Mahā Vagga Pāli

This division includes ten suttas. These suttas deals with historical, biographical and doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. Mahāparinibbāna Sutta is the most famous sutta of this category. Mahāparinibbāna Sutta narrates the last days of Buddha’s life and the distribution of his relics. Another important sutta of this division is Mahāpadāna Sutta deals with the narration of last seven Buddhas. Mahāvagga Pāli includes total ten suttas. They are Mahāpadāna Sutta, Mahānidāna Sutta, Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, Mahāsudassana Sutta, Janavasabha Sutta, Mahāgovinda Sutta, Mahāsamaya Sutta, Sakkapañha Sutta, Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Pāyāsi Sutta.

Pāthika Vagga Pāli

This division includes eleven shorter treatises of miscellaneous subjects. Periodical evolution and dissolution of the universe, the narrations of Universal Monarchs and the thirty-two characteristics of a great man are some important topics of Pāthika Vagga Pāli. There is one discourse called Siṅgāla Sutta discusses duties to be performed by the human society. The eleven suttas of this division are: Pāthika Sutta, Udumbarika Sutta, Cakkavatti Sutta, Agañña Sutta, Sampasādanīya Sutta, Pāsādika Sutta, Lakkhaṇa Sutta, Siṅgāla Sutta, Āṭānāṭiya Sutta, Saṅgīti Sutta and Dasuttara Sutta.

1.2. Majjhima Nikāya (Medium Collection)

Majjhima Nikāya consist of 152 suttas in three books known as paṇṇāsa. The three books are Mūlapaṇṇāsa, Majjhimapaṇṇāsa and Uparipaṇṇāsa. This division covers nearly all aspects of Buddhism like the monastic life, the excesses of ascetism, the evils of caste, Buddha’s debate with Jains and aspects of meditation. Majjhima Nikāya also discusses the basic doctrinal and ethical teachings and many legends and fables. The first book of this division, Mūlapaṇṇā includes fifty suttas in five vaggas.

Names of these five vaggas are:

Mūlapariyāya Vagga,
Sīhanāda Vagga,
Opamma Vagga,
Mahāyamaka Vagga and
Cūlayamaka Vagga.

Suttas of Mūlapariyāya Vagga.

Mūlapariyāya Sutta;
Sabbāsava Sutta;
Dhammadāyā Sutta;
Bhayabherava Sutta;
Anaṅgaṇa Sutta;
Ākaṅkheyya Sutta;
Vattha Sutta;
Sallekha Sutta;
Sammādiṭṭi Sutta;
Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta

Suttas of Sīhanāda Vagga

Cūḷasīhanāda Sutta;
Māhasīhanāda Sutta;
Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta;
Cūḷadukkhakkhandha Sutta;
Anumāna Sutta;
Cetokhila Sutta;
Vanapattha Sutta;
Madhupiṇḍik Sutta;
Dvedāvitakka Sutta;
Vitakkasaṇṭhāna Sutta.

Suttas of Opamma Vagga

Kakacūpama Sutta;
Alagaddūpama Sutta
Vammika Sutta,
Rathavinīta Sutta,
Nivāpa Sutta,
Pāsarāsi Sutta,
Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta,
Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta,
Mahāsāropama Sutta
Cūḷasāropama Sutta.

Suttas of Mahāyamaka Vagga

Cūlagosiṅga Sutta,
Mahāgosiṅga Sutta,
Cūḷagopalaka Sutta,
Cūḷasaccaka Sutta,
Mahāsaccaka Sutta,
Cūḷataṇhāsaṅkhaya Sutta,
Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhya Sutta,
Mahā-assapura Sutta
Cūḷa-assapura Sutta.

Suttas of Cūḷayamaka Vagga

Sāḷeyyaka Sutta,
Verañjaka Sutta,
Mahāvedalla Sutta,
Cūḷavedalla Sutta,
Cūḷadhammasamādāna Sutta,
Mahādhammasamādāna Sutta,
Vīmaṃsaka Sutta,
Kosambiya Sutta,
Brahmanimantanika Sutta
Māratajjanīya Sutta.

Majjhima Pannasa Pāli

Majjhima Pannasa Pāli includes five vaggas namely:

Each vagga consist of ten suttas.

Suttas of Gahapati vagga

Kandaraka Sutta,
Aṭṭhakanāgara Sutta,
Sekha Sutta;
Potaliya Sutta;
Jīvaka Sutta;
Upāli Sutta;
Kukkuravatika Sutta;
Abhayarājakumāra Sutta;
Bahuvedanīya Sutta;
Apaṇṇaka Sutta

Suttas of Bhikkhu Vagga

Ambalaṭṭhikarāhulovāda Sutta,
Mahārahulovāda Sutta,
Cūḷamālukya Sutta,
Mahāmālukya Sutta,
Laṭukikopama Sutta,
Cātuma Sutta,
Nalakapāna Sutta,
Goliyāni Sutta;
Kitāgiri Sutta

Suttas of Paribbājaka Vagga

Tevijjavaccha Sutta;
Aggivaccha Sutta;
Mahāvaccha Sutta;
Dīghanakha Sutta;
Māgaṇḍiya Sutta;
Sandaka Sutta;
Mahāsakuludāyi Sutta;
Samaṇamuṇḍika Sutta;
Cūḷasakuludāyi Sutta
Vekhanasa Sutta.

Suttas of Rāja Vagga

Ghaṭikāra Sutta;
Raṭṭhapāla Sutta;
Maghadeva Sutta;
Madhura Sutta;
Bodhirājakumāra Sutta;
Aṅgulīmāla Sutta
Piyajātika Sutta,
Bāhitika Sutta;
Dhammacetiya Sutta
Kaṇṇakatthala Sutta.

Suttas of Brāhmaṇa Vagga

Brahmāyu Sutta;
Sela Sutta;
Assalāyana Sutta;
Ghoṭamukha Sutta;
Caṅkī Sutta;
Esukārī Sutta;
Dhanañjāni Sutta;
Vāseṭṭa Sutta;
Subha Sutta
Saṅgāvara Sutta.

Uparipaṇṇāsa Pālī

This division also includes five vaggas. They are:

Devadaha Vagga,
Anupada Vagga,
Suññjata Vagga,
Vibaṅga Vagga and
Sāḷāyatana Vagga.

Suttas of Devadaha Vagga

Devadaha Sutta;
Pañcattaya Sutta;
Kinti Sutta;
Sāmagāma Sutta;
Sunakkhatta Sutta;
Āneñja-sappāya Sutta;
Gaṇakamoggallāna Sutta;
Gopakamoggalāna Sutta;
Mahāpuṇṇama Sutta
Cūḷapuṇṇama Sutta.

Suttas of Anupada Vagga

Anupada Sutta;
Chabbisodhana Sutta;
Sappurisa Sutta;
Sevitabbāsevitabba Sutta;
Bahudhātuka Sutta;
Isigili Sutta;
Mahācattārīsaka Sutta;
Ānāpānassati Sutta
Kāyagatāsati Sutta and
Saṅkhārupapatti Sutta.

Suttas of Suññata Vagga.

Cūḷasuññata Sutta;
Mahāsuññata Sutta;
Acchariya-abbhuta Sutta;
Bākula Sutta;
Dantabhūmi Sutta;
Bhūmija Sutta;
Anuruddha Sutta;
Upakkilesa Sutta,
Bālapaṇḍita Sutta;
Devadūta Sutta.

Suttas of Vibaṅga Vagga

Bhaddekaratta Sutta;
Ānanda-bhaddekaratta Sutta;
Mahākaccāna-bhaddekaratta Sutta;
Lomasakaṅgiya-bhaddekaratta Sutta;
Cūḷakamma-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Mahākamma-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Saḷāyatana-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Uddesa-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Araṇa-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Dhātu-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Sacca-vibhaṅga Sutta;
Dakkhiṇā-vibhaṅga Sutta.

Suttas of Saḷāyatana Vagga

Anāthapiṇḍikovāda Sutta;
Channovāda Sutta;
Puṇṇovāda Sutta;
Nandakovāda Sutta;
Cūḷarāhulovāda Sutta;
Chachakka Sutta;
Mahāsaḷāyanika Sutta;
Nagaravindeyya Sutta;
Piṇḍapātapārisuddhi Sutta;
Indriyabhāvanā Sutta.

1.3. Samyutta Nikāya

The Samyutta Nikāya (Cluster Collections) contains total of 7762 individual suttas. These suttas are arranged into five divisions according to subject matter. The divisions are: Sagāthā Vagga, Nidāna Vagga, Khandha Vagga, Saḷāyatana Vagga and Mahā Vagga. Each vagga is again divided into fifty-six groups called saṃyuttas. Each saṃyutta is further divided into groups which are made up of individual suttas.

Sagāthā Vagga Saṃyutta Pāli

Sagāthā Vagga Saṃyutta Pāli include eleven saṃyuttas. The discourses in this division are grouped according characters appearing in them. The name Sagāthā is derived from the fact that the characters in this discourse communicate with Buddha through verse.

Nidāna Vagga Saṃyutta Pāli

This division includes ten saṃyuttas. It deals with the fundamental aspects of the canon. The sermons are mainly discussing the principles of conditionality and interdependence, explained in detailed formula known as Paṭiccasamuppāda.^[4]

Khandha Vagga Saṃyutta Pāli

Khandha Vagga contains thirteen saṃyuttas. It deals with the topics such as atta (self) anatta (non-self) eternity and annihilation. As the name suggests, the main topic of this division is the khandhas or five elements that constitute what is regarded as a being. These components are: matter, sensation, perception, mental concomitants and consciousness.

Saḷāyatana Vagga Saṃyutta Pāli

This division includes ten saṃyuttas. It discusses the topics like internal sense base i.e., eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind, six corresponding external sense bases i.e., vision, sound, odour, taste, tangible things and mind-object, and consciousness that arise in relation to each pair of these internal and external sense bases. There are explanations on the impermanent nature of these sense bases and how the detachment to them leads to enlightenment. The sensation originates from the combination of the sense bases and consciousness is of three types: pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent. All these are impermanent. This division also gives explanations on Nibbāna (Nirvāṇa) and practical guide line for Vipassanā meditation^[5].

Mahā Vagga Saṃyutta Pāli

This last division of Saṃyutta Nikāya is made up of twelve saṃyuttas. It covers both theoretical and practical aspects of fundamental basis of Buddha’s teachings.

1.4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (Item-more collection)

Aṅguttara Nikāya contains 9557 short suttas and these suttas are divided into eleven groups known as nipātas. Each nipāta is further divided into vaggas which usually includes ten suttas. The nipātas are arranged in progressive numerical order. The name Aṅguttara means increasing by one item. Hence the first nipāda called Ekaka Nipāta, contains in each sutta single item of dhamma. The second nipāta, Duka Nipāta provides in each sutta two items and so on and the last sutta called Ekādasaka Nipāta consist of eleven items of dhamma in each. The names of nipātas are Ekaka Nipāta, Duka Nipāta, Tika Nipāta, Catukka Nipāta, Pañcaka Nipāta, Chakka Nipāta, Sattaka Nipāta, Aṭṭaka Nipāta, Navaka Nipāta, Dasaka Nipāta and Ekādasaka Nipāta. Aṅguttara Nikāya discusses about Buddhist psychology and ethics and gives a specific summary of all important characteristics concerning the theory and practiced of the Dhamma.

1.5. Khuddaka Nikāya

The word “Khuddaka” literally means “minor or “small”, but this division contains the largest number of treatise and the most numerous the most numerous categories of dhamma. This division contains miscellaneous topics like the birth stories, history of Buddha, teachings of Buddha, personal struggles and achievements of theras and therī etc. Khuddaka Nikāya consist of eighteen treatises. They are:

Khuddaka Pāṭha: This book includes nine short passages designed as a manual for novice under training.

Dhammapada: Dhammapada is a collection of the Buddha’s word or essential teachings of Buddha’s teaching. This book is well-known all around the world. It includes 423 verses arranged according to topics in twenty-six vaggas.

Udāna: Udāna is a collection of eighty short verses uttered by Buddha on a unique occasion of absolute bliss. Each udāna in verse is accompanied by an account in prose of the situations that lead to their being uttered.

Itiuvuttaka: This division contains 112 short suttas in mixed verse and prose form. Suttas are divided into four nipātas. Itivuttaka gets its name from Pāli phrase that introduces each sutta “iti vuttam Bhagavata” means “thus was said by the Buddha.”

Suttanipāta: It includes seventy-one short suttas divided into five vaggas. The vaggas are namely: Uraga Vagga, Cūḷa Vagga, Mahā Vagga, Aṭṭahaka Vagga and Pārāyana Vagga.

Vimāna Vatthu: Here vimāna refers to celestial mansions acquired by beings who have done act of merit. This text contains eighty-five verses grouped in seven vaggas. Each verse explains what act of merit led to one human being’s rebirth in one of the heavenly realms.

Peta Vatthu: Peta Vatthu describe the stories of the miserable states of beings (petas) who have been reborn as unhappy existences as a result of their evil deeds. Envy, jealousy, miserliness, greed and wrong views are the cause of the unhappy state of petas. The text includes fifty-one stories divided into four vaggas. These stories describe the life of misery of the evil persons, in direct contrast to the glorious life of the devas.

Thera Gāthā and Therī Gāthā: These two treatises offer beautiful personal accounts of the lives of two hundred and sixty-four theras (monks) and seventy-three therīs (nuns) composed in verses. These inspiring verses narrate their achievement and the efforts which has led to their final enlightenment. These gāthās may be enjoyed as beautiful poem with exquisite imagery and pleasing words or they may be intended on as inspiring messages with deep meaning to uplift the mind to the highest levels of spiritual attainment.^[6]

Jātaka: Jātakas are the stories of previous existence of Buddha while he was a Bodhisattva. The Jātaka is composed in verses and includes 547 stories (usually referred to in Burma as 550 stories).^[7]

Niddesa: This divisions consist of two parts: Mahā Niddesa and Cūḷa Niddesa. Mahā Niddesa is a commentary on Aṭṭaka Vagga and Cūḷa Niddesa is a commentary on Pārāyana Vagga and Khaggavisāṇa Sutta. This treatise traditionally attributed to Śārīputra.

Paṭisaṃbhidā Magga: It deals with the relevant teachings of Buddha. This book is divided in to three vaggas, namely, Mahā Vagga, Yuganaddha Vagga and Pañña Vagga. Each vagga includes ten subgroups named kathās. This treatise also ascribed to Venerable Śārīputra.

Apadāna: Apadāna means biography or life story of a particularly accomplished person, who has ultimately achieved Buddhahood.^[8] This treatise contains life stories of Buddha and his Arhat disciples. It is divided into two parts, namely Therapadāna and Therīpadāna. Therāpadāna give stories of Buddha, forty-one Pratyeka Buddhas and five hundred and fifty-nine Arhats. Therīpadāna deals with the life stories of forty Therī Arhats.

Buddhavaṃsa: Buddhavaṃsa gives a biographical account of Gotama Buddha and of twenty-four previous Buddhas who had predicted his attainment of enlightenment. It is composed in verse and consist of twenty-nine sections.

Cariyā Piṭaka: This treatise consists of thirty-five stories of Buddha’s previous lives, purportedly retold at the request of Venerable Śāīputra. Cariyā Piṭaka is composed in verse form.

Nettippakarana and Peṭakopadesa: These two treatises are different from other books of the Tipiṭaka because these two works are exegetical and methodological in nature.^[9] Nettippakarana consist of seven chapters and Peṭakopadesa consist of eight chapters.

Milindapañha: Milindapañha is composed in a long series of dialogue between king Milinda, the ruler of Sāgala and Venerable Nāgasena. King Milinda asks questions concerning the Dhamma and Venerable Nāgasena gave him satisfactory answers on each question. The king is deeply inspired by Venerable Nāgasens’s wisdom and become a follower of Buddihsm

2. Vinaya Piṭaka

All the disciplinary rules framed for the conduct and guidance for the bhikkus (Buddhist monks) and bhikkuṇīs (nuns) are collected in Vinaya Piṭaka. These rules represent authoritative commands of the Buddha on modes of conduct and restrains on both physical and verbal actions. They deal with disobediences of discipline, and with various categories of restraints and admonitions in accordance with the nature of offence. The rules of discipline first laid down the Buddha are known as Mūlāpaññatti; those added later are called Anupaññatti. Together they are known as Sikkhāpadas (rules of discipline).^[10] The Vinaya Piṭaka is made up of five books. They are,

Pārājika Pāli: Pārājika Pāli gives an elaborate description of the important rules of discipline regarding four offences namely Pārājika, Saṃghādisesa, Aniyata and Nissaggiya.

Pācittya Pāli: This book deals with the remaining sets of rules for the bhikkus. They are Pācittya, Pāṭidesanīya, Sekhiya and Adhikaraṇasamatha.

Mahāvagga Pāli: This book deals with all those matters relating to the Saṃgha. Mahāvagga Pāḷi consist of ten sections known as Khandhakas.

Cūḷavagga Pāli: Cūḷavagga Pāli continues to deal with more rules and procedures for institutional acts or functions known as Saṃghakamma. This book consists of twelve sections. Cūḷavagga Pāḷi also discusses the rules regarding observance of penance, reinstatement of a bhikku, duties of tutors and novices.

Parivāra Pāli: This treatise provides a guidance for the settlement of monastic disputes and handling matters of jurisprudence, for the formation of Saṃgha court and appointment of efficient Saṃgha judges.

3. Abhiddhamma Piṭaka.

The Abhidhamma Piṭaka deals with the higher teachings of the Buddha. Abhidhamma discusses about the ultimate Truths and explores Mind and Matter and the relationship between them. It is a huge collection of systematically arranged, tabulated and classified doctrines of Buddha, representing the essence of his teaching. It is unique in its abstruseness, analytical approach, enormity of scope and conduciveness to one’s liberation^[11]. Abhidhamma Piṭaka is again divided into seven books. They are,

Dhammasaṅgaṇī pāli: This book enumerates ultimate realities found in the world.

Vibhaṅga Pāli: Vibhaṅga Pāli continues the analysis of Dhammasaṅgaṇī but gives a closer view of Dhamma. This book consists of eighteen chapters each dealing with a particular aspect of the Dhamma.

Dhātukathā Pāli: this is a small treatise compared to other books of Abhidhamma piṭaka. It includes fourteen chapters. Points discusses in Dhātukathā are repetition of previous books, but the method of analysis here is different from that of previous books. It is composed in the form of questions and answers.

Puggalapaññatti Pāli: Puggalapaññatti means “the designation of individuals”. Different types of individuals or number of personalitytypes are classified in ten chapters of the book.

Kathāvattu Pāli: The style of composition of Kathāvattu is quite different from that of other treatise of Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It is composed in the form of a dialogue between two imaginary debaters, one holding heterodox views of different sects and other representing the Therāvāda views.

Yamaka Pāli: Yamaka is a logical analysis of many concepts discussed in previous books. This is composed in the form of pairs of questions, which gives the title of Yamaka.

Paṭṭāna Pāli: This book describes the law of conditionality, through which the dhamma interact. The word “paṭṭāna” literally means a system of relations. It arranges all conditioned things under twenty-four kinds of relations, describes and categorizes them into a complete system for understanding the mechanics of Dhamma.

After the Mahāparinirvāṇa of Buddha, Buddhism is divided into several sects and each sect have produced their own literature. In early times treatises were composed in mixed Sanskrit, that is mixture of Sanskrit and Prakrts in local dialect. The texts like Mahāvastu and Lalitavistara are good examples.