Introduction to Chinese Buddhism

Although the thought of Buddha-nature as presented in the Tathāgatagarbha literature arose in India; it was really suitable and highly developed in China and Southeast Asia, especially in Vietnam. When the Chinese thought came into contact with Indian Buddhism around the first century CE, the movement of translating of Buddhist scriptures began to develop and stimulate the Chinese thinkers to interpret and comment the Buddha‘s teachings in the light of their own existing philosophy and religion. In the early time of Buddhism in China, besides the translations of An-shi-gao (?-168 CE) which was Hīnayāna in nature such as the Ānāpānasatisūtra and so on, the scriptures of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā literature of Mahāyāna were also translated into Chinese. However, the thought of Śūnyatā (Emptiness) in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras was so transcendental and somewhat negative that it was not suitable for the Chinese mind which naturally loves the realities of everyday life. The Chinese seemed to be still waiting for a coming of the new Buddhist thought which is more realistic and optimistic. Hence, when the doctrine of Buddha-nature first came into China in the unfinished translation of the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra, it was warmly accepted and carefully studied by the Chinese. Gradually, the thought of Buddha-nature penetrated into the foundations of Chinese Buddhism and became the vital doctrine of several schools such as the Chan, Tiantai, Huayan, Esoteric, etc.

Although Chinese Buddhism had independently developed in the Eastern Chin dynasty (317-420 CE), its sectarian division began to emerge during the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 CE). After that, some other schools continued to arise in the Sui dynasty (581-618 CE), but the schools of Chinese Buddhism really reached full bloom during the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). After the Tang, except for the Lamaism (Tibetan Tantric Buddhism) appearing in the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE), there was no more any Buddhist school arising in China.^[1] According Junjirō Takakusu, there were totally fourteen Chinese Buddhist schools coming into existence between the Southern-Northern and the Tang dynasties.^[2] They were the Pitan (Abhidharma), Chengshi (Satyasiddhi), Sanlun (Three-Treatise), Lu (Vinaya), Niepan (Nirvāṇa), Dilun (Stages), Jingtu (Pure Land), Chan (Meditation), Shelun (Saṃgrāha), Tiantai, Huayan, Jushe (Kośa), Faxiang (Dharma-character), and Mi (Esoteric).

During the development of Buddhism in China, some small schools merged into the larger ones. For example, Pitan (Abhidharma) merged into Jushe (Kośa); Dilun (Stages) became one with Huayan (Avataṃsaka), etc. Therefore, up to the Tang dynasty, altogether there were ten surviving schools, traditionally divided into two main categories, schools of Being and schools of Non-being, depending on whether they affirmed or denied the self-nature of dharmas (here “elements of existence”) and the ego.^[3] Three of these, Cheng-shi, Ju-she and Lu were regarded in China as Hīnayāna schools, did not exerted much influence or lasted very long. The same may be said of two Mahāyāna schools, Sanlun and Faxiang, which taught one-sided philosophies, the former reducing everything to emptiness and the latter reducing everything to consciousness.^[4] It should be noted that all Hīnayāna schools as well as Sanlun and Faxiang did not recognize the Buddha-nature doctrine in their tenets. It is very possible that because of this rejection of the Buddha-nature, all these schools could not resolve the one-sided thought in their teaching; therefore they did not satisfy the Chinese mind and soon declined in China.

Thus, Buddhist schools in China were essentially different systems of thought rather than opposing sects of religious practice, in which if schools represent one-sided philosophies or extreme positions, they will not suit the temper of the Chinese, and will early come into decline. The doctrine that can satisfy the Chinese particularity is only the Buddha-nature. Indeed, the schools that have formed the spirit and substance of Chinese Buddhism such as Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, and Jing-tu, have all accepted Buddha-nature as one of their fundamental and essential thought. Except for the influence of the Buddha-nature thought on the Jing-tu School was somewhat less straightforward; the Buddha-nature doctrine has entered into the foundations and played a very important role in the thought and practice of such the essential schools of Chinese Buddhism.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Kenneth K. Saṃyuttanikāya. Ch‘en, Buddhism in China: Aṅguttaranikāya Historical Survey, pp. 297-418.

[2]:

Junjirō Takakusu, The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy, 2002, p. 6.

[3]:

Wm. Theodore De Bary (ed.), Source of Chinese Tradition, Vol. I, p. 291.

[4]:

Ibid., p. 292.