1.2. Āryadeva and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra

Although some scholars doubt the real author of the Āryadeva‘s polemical śāstras on heretical views mentioned in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, and also suggest the date of these tetxs as early as the fifth century CE;^[1] other researchers believe that these Āryadeva‘s works were written himself in between 225-250 CE.^[2] Anyway, these works are very valuable in providing information about the system of philosophical thought in India in the era of the Tathāgatagarbha literature, i.e. between the 3^rd and 5^th century CE.

His two works are as follows:

(1) The Śāstra by the Bodhisattva Deva on the Breaking of Four Heretical and Hīnayāna Schools Mentioned in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra.^[3]

(2) The Śāstra by the Bodhisattva Deva on the Explanation of Nirvāṇa by (Twenty) Heretical and Hīnayāna Teachers Mentioned in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra.^[4]

The first commentary, which is in fairly short length, divides the views of non-Buddhist schools into four categories: oneness, duality, and non-duality as the following quotations from the Āryadeva‘s first commentary.

言一切法一者。外道僧佉論師說。
言一切法異者。外道毘世師論師說。
言一切法俱者。外道尼犍子論師說
言一切法不俱者。外道若提子論師說。^[5]

-Heretic masters of the Sāṃkhya (sengqu; i.e. shulun) advocate “all things are Oneness”;
-Heretic masters of the Vaiśeṣika (pishishi; i.e. shenglun) advocate “all things are Difference”;
-Heretic masters of the Nirgrantha (nijianzi) advocate “all things are Duality”
-Heretic masters of the Jñāniputra (ruotizi) advocate “all things are the Non-duality”.^[6]

These four schools correspond to those found in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra, the Liu Song version of 4 fasciculi:

唯願爲說離有無一異俱不俱非有非無常無常. 一切外道所不行. 自覺聖智所行.^[7]

I only hope to say away from heteric doctrines of Being or Nonbeing, Onenesss or Difference, Duality or Non-duality, Permanence or Impermanence. All heretics are not my practice. The Noble wisdom of Self-realization is my practice.^[8]

The Āryadeva‘s second commentary presents twenty non-Buddhist kinds of Nirvāṇa and the especially Chārvāka or Lokāyata‘s views found in the Nirvāṇa chapter (T16n671, p. 549) and the Lokāyata chapter (T16n671, p. 547-48).

Especially, the fourth school among 20 Non-Buddhist schools, i.e. the Vedavāda of the orthodox Brahmins who followed the Vedas was introduced as a theory of the Brahmā Deva; there was no doctrine of Brahma as the Great Self or Universial Principle found in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra as well as in the Āryadeva‘s commentaries on the sūtra:

問曰。何等外道說梵天是涅槃因。答曰。第四外道圍陀論師說。從那羅延天臍中生大蓮華。從蓮華生梵天祖公。彼梵天作一切命。無命物從梵天口中生。婆羅門兩臂中生。剎利兩髀中生。毘舍從兩脚^[9] 跟生。首陀一切大地。是修福德戒場生一切華草。以為供養。化作山野禽獸人中猪羊驢馬等。於界場中殺害供養梵天。得生彼處名涅槃。是故違陀論師說梵天名常是涅 槃因。^[10]

It is asked:—Which outsiders teach that the Brahmā Deva is the cause of Nirvāṇa?

It is answered: The fourth class of outsiders, the Vedavādins, teach that from the navel of the god Nārāyaṇa is born the great lotus flower, and from the lotus is born Brahmā Deva, the forefather of creatures (pitāmaha). All living and non-living things are made by Brahmā: from the mouth of Brahmā are born the Brahmins; from his two arms are born the nobility (Kṣatriya);from his two thighs the Vaiśyas; from his both feet are born the Śūdras. All the earth is a sacrificial place in which is performed acts to bring happiness and merit. All lotus flowers are produced so that they may be used as offerings. Undergoing transformation, it makes the mountains and fields, birds and beasts. Among men, the domestic animals like pigs, sheep, asses and horses, in this worldarena are killed to be offered to the Brahmā Deva, so that man may obtain rebirth in Nirvāṇa, the name of Brahmā‘s world. And therefore, the Vedavādins teach that Brahmā Deva is said to always be the cause of Nirvāṇa.^[11]

The word Vedavāda or Vedavādins was translated from the Chinese 違陀論師 weiduolunshi (teachers of Vedas) by Hajime Nakamura in his above translation. In the above account, the Brahmā Deva is born from the navel of god Nārāyaṇa (i.e., Viṣṇu), and the world is created from this Brahmā.

This myth is presented in several Brahmanical sacred texts.^[12]

Another universal creation myth in the Brāhmaṇas is also described by Āryadeva in the śāstra. 問曰。何等外道說見有無物是涅槃因。答曰。第二十外道本生安荼論師說。本無日月星辰虛空及地。唯有大水。時大安荼生如雞子周匝金色時熟。破為二段。一段在上作天。一段在下作地。彼二中間生梵天名一切眾生祖公。作一切有命無命物。如是有命無命等物散沒。彼處名涅槃。是^[13] 故外道安荼論師說。大安荼出生梵天是常。名涅槃因。^[14]

It is asked:—What class of outsiders teach that the seeing of being and non-being is the cause of Nirvāṇa?

It is answered:—The twentieth class of outsiders, the philosophers who hold that in the beginning arose an egg, teach that originally there were no sun, moon, stars, sky or earth, that there was only the great waters. Then a great egg was born, like that of a hen, but of a golden colour all around. When it hatched, it broke into two parts, the upper part making the heavens, and the lower part forming the earth. Between these two parts arose the Brahmā Deva, which is called the forefather of all sentient beings, and which made all animate inanimate things. Thus, these animate and inanimate things fall and disappear into the Brahmā place, which is called Nirvāṇa. And that is why the outsiders, the philosophers of the egg, teach that the great egg gave birth to the Brahmā Deva, who is eternal and is called the cause of Nirvāṇa.‖^[15]

Analysis of Nakamura demonstrates that this creation myth although is taught in the Brāhmaṇas (Śat. Br. XI, 1, 6, 1-3), and it also has been held in the Upaniṣads (Chand. Up. III.19.103; Maitrāyana-Brāhmaṇa-Upaniṣad VI.36.), that the universe evolved from an “egg,” but these do not refer to Brahmā, only water existed in the original state of the universe, after which “a golden egg” arose, and when that hatched; the entire world evolved.^[16] The idea that Brahmā God arose from a golden egg, and then caused the entire world to evolve, first appears in the Mahābhārata (Mahābhārata. XII.312.3, XIII.154.16 ff) and in the Code of Manu where it assumes its most characteristic expression. Nakamura concludes that it would seem that the author of Āryadeva‘s Śāstra was perhaps using this doctrine of the Manu Code as his source here.^[17]

Some other non-Buddhist theories on the Nirvāṇa are presented in this Āryadeva‘s Śāstra which are found only in the Upaniṣads:

“It is asked:—What class of outsiders teach that seeing non-being is the cause of Nirvāṇa?

“It is answered:—the nineteenth class of outsiders, the philosophers who assert the power of the mouth, teach that space (ākāśa) is the cause of everything. In the beginning arose space, and from space arose the wind; from the wind arose fire, and from fire arose warmth; from warmth arose water, and water then froze and made the hard earth. From earth arose all kinds of grass and herbs, and from all these kinds of herbs arose the five grains. From the five grains arose life;therefore, in our theory, it is taught that life is food. In the final period, all returns to disappear in space, which is called Nirvāṇa. Thus, the oursiders who advocate the power of the mouth, teach that space is eternal, and call it the cause of Nirvāṇa.”^[18] (T32n1640, p. 158a23)

The idea that space is the cause of world evolution is found in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad VIII.14; but the theory of “the philosophers who advocate the power of the mouth” given above is in accordance for the most part with the doctrine of world development taught in the Taittirīya-Up. II.1, II.2.^[19]

“It is asked:—What class of outsiders teach that Nirvāṇa comes about by not seeing a difference between the eternal and transitory?

“It is answered:—The fifth class of outsiders, the Īśānavādins, hold that the form of the Holy Person (Bhagavat) is invisible and omnipresent, and from its formlessness, it can give birth to all living and lifeless things, which is called Nirvāṇa. Therefore those who belong to the Īśānavādins teach this theory, and say that Īśāna is eternal and the cause of Nirvāṇa.”^[20] (T32n1640, p. 157a20)

Īśāna (伊賒那 yishena) is one of various names of the God Śiva, who rules all the worlds by his powerful authority, and exist within all men (Śvet. Up. II.2.) The Bhagavat (尊者 zunzhe) or “Holy Person” mentioned in the Śāstra perhaps is a translation for bhagavat who pervades all thing and is bliss.

Other non-Buddhist views presented in the Śāstra are translated by Hajime Nakamura in his work A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy (Vol. I, pp. 170-76), as follows:

-The third class of outsiders, those who teach that the wind is sacred, teach that the wind can give birth to long-lived living beings; the wind makes all things, and can destroy all things. They say that the wind is Nirvāṇa. (T32n1640, p. 157a07)

-The eighteenth class of outsiders, the philosophers who worship water, hold the following theory: Water is the basis of all things. Water can give birth to the heavens and the earth, produce all living and lifeless things. From the Avīci hell below to the Akaniṣṭha heaven above, everything is ruled by water. Water can produce things, and water can destroy things, and is called Nirvāṇa. (T32n1640, p. 157a26)

-The seventeenth class of heretics, the Kālavādins, teach as follows. Time ripens all the elements; time makes all things; and time disperses all things. Therefore, in our doctrine it is taught: Even supposing that one is shot by hundreds of arrows, if his time has not come, he will not die; but if his time has come, he could instantly die by touching a small blade of grass. All things time produces, all things time ripens, and all things time destroys. There is nothing beyond time. Therefore the Kālavādins teach that time is eternal, gives birth to all things, and is called the cause of Nirvāṇa. (T32n1640, p. 158a11)

-The twelfth class of outsiders, the followers of Māṭhara, say that the adherents of Nārāyaṇa teach that “I make all things. I, among all living things, am supreme. I give birth to the entire world of living and lifeless things. I am the King of Mt. Sumeru, the largest of all mountains. I am the largest ocean of all the waters. I am the grain of all medicines. I am the Muni Kapila of all the sages. If a man with pious heart offers water, leaves, flowers and fruit to me, I shall not lose him, and he shall not lose me.” The Māṭhara masters teach that the adherents of Nārāyaṇa say that “All things are created and produced by me, and when they are dissolved into this principle, it is called Nirvāṇa.” (T32n1640, p. 157b25)

-The fifteenth class of outsiders, the proponents of Maheśvara, teach as follows: The effect is created by Nārāyaṇa. Brahma is the cause. Maheśvara has one body and three parts, i.e., Brahmā, Nārāyaṇa, and Maheśvara. The earth is the foundation. The lord of the earth is Maheśvara. In the three worlds, all the living and lifeless things which exist are produced by Maheśvara. As for Maheśvara itself, space is its head, earth is its body, water is its urine, mountains are its excrement, all creatures are worms in its bowels, wind is its life, fire is its warmth, and merit and demerit are its actions (karman). These eight types are the Maheśvara itself. Īśvara is the cause of birth and destruction. All is produced by Īśvara and by Īśvara it is destroyed, and this is called Nirvāṇa. Therefore, the propounders of Maheśvara teach that Īśvara eternally produces all things, and is the cause of Nirvāṇa. (T32n1640, p. 157c12)

-The ninth class of outsiders, those who hold that all things derive from certain female persons, teach that Maheśvara made eight females. The first is called Aditi, the second Diti, the third Surabhi, the fourth Vinata, the fifth Kapilā, the sixth Manu, the seventh Ilā, and the eighth Kadrū. Aditi begot the gods; Diti created the demons; Surabhi produced the serpents; Vinatā gave birth to the birds. Kapilā begot quadrupeds; Manu gave birth to men. Ilā produced all kinds of grain;Kadrū gave birth to all kinds of snakes, scorpions, mosquitoes, gnats, flies, fleas, illipedes, centipedes, etc. To know this, is called Nirvāṇa. Therefore, those who teach that all derives from females, say that females are eternal, and are called the cause of Nirvāṇa (T32n1640, p.157b09)

In brief, the first Āryadeva‘s śāstra explains critiques mentioned in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra about the Hīnayāna and doctrines of Oneness, Difference, Dualism and Non-dualism held by four heterodox schools: Sāṃkhya, Vaiśeṣika, Nirgrantha and Jñāniputra; and the second śāstra presents the views of Nirvāṇa advocated by twenty Non-Buddhist schools. But among all of them, the Upaniṣadic theory of Brahman as the universal principle cannot be found. Thus, at the time the earliest version of the Laṅkāvatārasūtra composed in about 250 CE, the doctrine of Brahman, which was akin the Buddhist thought of the Buddha-nature, had not yet appeared in India. In other words, the Buddhist doctrine of the Buddha-nature is able to be considered as the precursor of the later Upaniṣadic doctrine of Brahman. To illuminate this view, it is necessary to review the tenets taught by Non-Buddhist philosophers of the so-called “Hindu orthodox philosophical schools” (Āstika darśanas), from which it hopes to trace out the date that the doctrine of Brahman appeared to compare with the date of Buddha-nature.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ibid.

[2]:

Suah Kim, “Aṅguttaranikāya Problem of the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra,” in International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture, February 2003, Vol. 2, p. 364.

[3]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T32n1639] (提婆菩薩破楞伽經中外道小乘四宗論 Ti-po-pu-sa-po-leng-jia-jing-zhong-waidao-shao-cheng-si-zong-lun)

[4]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T32n1640] (提婆菩薩釋楞伽經中外道小乘涅槃論 Ti-po-pu-sa-shi-leng-jia-jing-zhong-waidao-shao-cheng-nie-pan-lun)

[5]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T32n1639], p. 155.

[6]:

It is translated by the writer. No complete translation in English is available.

[7]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T16n670], p. 490c.

[8]:

Translated by the writer.

[9]:

Ekapuggalo, bhikkhave, loke uppajjamāno uppajjati bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukampāya atthāya hitāya sukhāya devamanussānaṃ. Katamo ekapuggalo? Tathāgato arahaṃ sammāsambuddho (Aṅguttaranikāya i, 21.)

[10]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T32n1640], p. 157a.

[11]:

Hajime Nakamura, Aṅguttaranikāya History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 165.

[12]:

Ṛg-Veda Xuzangjing .90; Viṣṇu-purāṇa I, 2,58 f.; Mahābhārata. XII.298; Rāmāyaṇa VII.56.7 (Cf. Hajime Nakamura, Aṅguttaranikāya History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 178 endnotes).

[13]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T12n375], p. 0648b.

[14]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T32n1640], p. 158b.

[15]:

Hajime Nakamura, Aṅguttaranikāya History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 167.

[16]:

Ibid., 168.

[17]:

Ibid. 168, 178 endnotes.

[18]:

Hajime Nakamura, Aṅguttaranikāya History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 168.

[19]:

Ibid.

[20]:

Ibid.