1. Early period (c): The Mahāparinirvāna-sūtra

Among the scriptures belonging to the first period of the Tathāgatagarbha literature, the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (or simply Nirvāṇa Sūtra) or The sūtra of the Great Decease of the Buddha is the most important sūtra that had a very great and wide influence on the thought of many schools of Chinese Buddhism. The sūtra expounds some of the famous narrative episodes in the final months of the life of the Buddha. The sūtra uses these narratives as a foundation for the expression of Mahayana ideals.^[1]

The Sanskrit original of the Mahāyāna version of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra must have been compiled between 200 and 400 CE and has survived only in a number of fragments,^[2] which were discovered in Central Asia, Afghanistan and Japan. It is also necessary to mention here that there is a text of Early Buddhism in Pāli titled Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta^[3] , which is much earlier the Mahāyāna version; both texts are about the record of the final discourse of the Buddha. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra exists in Chinese and Tibetan versions of varying lengths.

There are three Chinese translations of the Mahāparinirvānasūtra:

-The “Six fascicle text”, namely, Foshuodabannihuanjing,^[4] translated in the Eastern Chin by Buddhabhadra and Fa-xian in 418 CE.

-The “Northern text”, with 40 fascicles, namely, Dabanniepanjing,^[5] was translated in the Northern Liang by Dharmakṣema in 423 CE.

-The “Southern text” with 36 fascicles, same title dabanniepanjing,^[6] translated in the Song by Jñānabhadra in circa 453 CE.

There were only 12 chapters of this Sūtra that were translated into English by Kosho Yamamoto in 1973 from the Dharmakshema’s Chinese version (T12n374). This English translation continued to be complete by Tony Page and first published in 2000.^[7]

Because the text claims to be the Buddha’s final discourse before His Parinirvāṇa, it apparently exposes secret teachings that had not been addressed by the Buddha before. The scripture describes itself as providing the correct understanding of earlier Buddhist teachings, such as those on No-self and Emptiness; the latter concept is explicated as meaning empty of that which is compounded, painful, and impermanent. The fundamental Buddhist doctrine denies the existence of a permanent underlying element, i.e. the ātman, or “soul” in sentient beings; however, in this sūtra the Buddha teaches a theory of a “True-self” (satyaātman) and a view of nirvāṇa as “permanent, blissful, personal (self), and pure,” statements that were typically denied in other Buddhist texts. The sūtra emphatically maintains that the universal body of the Buddha (dharmakāya) is permanent and eternal, and that every human being is endowed with Buddhahood.

Common mortals play with words and dispute, betraying their own ignorance as to the Tathagata’s undisclosed store. When it comes to the question of suffering, the ignorant say that the body is non-eternal and all is suffering. Also, they do not know that there is also the nature of Bliss in the body. If the Eternal is alluded to, common mortals say that all bodies are non-eternal, like unfired tiles. One with wisdom discriminates things and does not say that all is non-eternal. Why not? because man possesses the seed of the Buddha-Nature. When non-Self is talked about, common mortals say that there cannot be Self in the Buddhist teaching. One who is wise should know that No-self is a temporary existence and is not true. Knowing thus, one should not have any doubt. When the hidden Tathāgatagarbha is stated as being empty and quiet, common mortals will think of ceasing and extinction. One who is wise knows that the Tathāgata is eternal and unchanging. If emancipation is stated to be something like a phantom, common mortals say that the person who attains emancipation is one who wears away to nothingness; a person with wisdom thinks that he is a man-lion and that, though he comes and goes, he is eternal and does not change.^[8]

The doctrine of the Buddha-nature as described in this sūtra is obviously non-dualistic and avoids two extremes of any thinking. It transcends the common understanding of Self and No-self; it is True-self. Because the Buddha-nature is True-self, so contains all characteristics and natures of Buddha and is not nihilistic:

How does the Bodhisattva know the Buddha-Nature? There are six aspects to the Buddha-Nature. What are the six? They are: 1) the Eternal, 2) the Pure, 3) the Real, 4) the Good, 5) the Visible, and 6) the True. Also, there are seven things, namely: what is attestable, plus the other six stated above. This is called how the Bodhisattva comes to know of the Buddha-Nature.

How does the Bodhisattva know the form of the Tathagata? The Tathagata is a form of Awakening and of Good. He is the Eternal, Bliss, the Self, and the Pure, and is” “Liberation and the True.^[9]

This doctrine of the True-self was the logical peak of Buddhist philosophy. Early Buddhist thought insisted that there is no permanent or unchanging self in an individual, only a gathering of the five aggregates which are constantly changing. If there is no permanent self in saṃsāra, how the Buddha can realize the state of nirvāṇa and enjoy the bliss of that state. According to Early Buddhism, there is no self in nirvāṇa. However, this sūtra says that the Buddha possesses an immortal self, that the final state of nirvāṇa is one of bliss and purity enjoyed by the eternal self. This is again a positive statement in the Tathāgatagarbha literature to ensure the Buddhist final goal of union with the Buddha. This positive salvation is guaranteed by the fact that all living beings possess the Buddha-nature, which is eternal, pure, real, good and true. All living beings from the beginning of life participated in the eternal existence and nature of the Buddha, and this constructive idea gives dignity to all Buddhist followers.

Because the Buddha-nature is stated in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra as the true-self which is “indestructible like a diamond” (T12n375, p. 653c), some scholars detect the influence of Brahmanism upon this scripture. However, the text itself extremely tries to deny from all such heterodox teachings of monism or dualism, and asserts itself to be typically Buddhist. Although the short version, i.e. the six-fascicle text, states that icchantikas cannot become Buddhas because of their deep and thick defilements,^[10] the longer versions of the Sūtra stress the claim that, because of the Buddha-nature, all beings, even icchantikas, will eventually become the Buddhas.

In brief, the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra is the major text which has great importance in the thought of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The concept of true-self of Buddha-nature in this sūtra may be considered the unique idea of the Tathāgatagarbha literature.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ming-Wood Liu, “The Doctrine of Buddha-nature in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra,” in ed. Paul Williams, Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Vol. V, p. 190.

[2]:

Mircea Eliade (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. II, p. 465.

[3]:

Dialogues of the Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya), tr. Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011).W. Rhys Davids, p. 78.

[4]:

佛説大般泥洹經, Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T12n376], pp. 853-899.

[5]:

大般涅槃經, Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T12n374], pp. 365-603.

[6]:

大般涅槃經, Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T12n375], pp. 605-852.

[7]:

The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, tr. Kosho Yamamoto, ed. Tony Page (London: Nirvana Publications, 2000.)

[8]:

The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, tr. Kosho Yamamoto, ed. Tony Page, pp. 107-08.

[9]:

Ibid., p. 342.

[10]:

Taisho Tripiṭaka (CBETA 2011) [T12n376], p. 0892b.