B. Exposition of Dependent Origination

[I. Preamble]

25. Now, in teaching this dependent origination the Blessed One has set forth the text in the way beginning, “With ignorance as condition there are formations” (S II 20). Its meaning should be commented on by one who keeps within the circle of the Vibhajjavādins,^[1] who does not misrepresent the teachers, who does not advertise his own standpoint, who does not quarrel with the standpoint of others, who does not distort suttas, who is in agreement with the Vinaya, who looks to the principal authorities (mahāpadesa—D II 123ff.), who illustrates the law (dhamma), who takes up the meaning (attha), repeatedly reverting to that same meaning, describing it in various different ways.^[2] And it is inherently difficult to comment on the dependent origination, as the Ancients said:

The truth, a being, rebirth-linking,
And the structure of conditions,
Are four things very hard to see
And likewise difficult to teach.

Therefore, considering that to comment on the dependent origination is impossible except for those who are expert in the texts:

Whilst I would now begin the comment
On the structure of conditions
I find no footing for support
And seem to founder in a sea. [523]

However, many modes of teaching
Grace the Dispensation here,
And still the former teachers’ way
Is handed down unbrokenly.

Therefore on both of these relying
For my support, I now begin
Its meaning to elucidate:
Listen therefore attentively.

26. For this has been said by the former teachers:

Whoever learns alertly this [discourse]
Will go from excellence to excellence,
And when perfected, he will then escape
Beyond the vision of the King of Death.

[II. Brief Exposition]

27. So as regards the passages that begin: “With ignorance as condition there are formations” (S II 20), to start with:

(1) As different ways of teaching, (2) meaning,
(3) Character, (4) singlefold and so on,
(5) As to defining of the factors,
The exposition should be known.

28. 1. Herein, as different ways of teaching: the Blessed One’s teaching of the dependent origination is fourfold, namely, (i) from the beginning; or (ii) from the middle up to the end; and (iii) from the end; or (iv) from the middle down to the beginning. It is like four creeper-gatherers’ ways of seizing a creeper.

29. (i) For just as one of four men gathering creepers sees only the root of the creeper first, and after cutting it at the root, he pulls it all out and takes it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches the dependent origination from the beginning up to the end thus: “So, bhikkhus, with ignorance as condition there are formations; … with birth as condition ageing-and-death” (M I 261).

30. (ii) Just as another of the four men sees the middle of the creeper first, and after cutting it in the middle, he pulls out only the upper part and takes it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the middle up to the end thus: “When he is delighted with, welcomes, remains committed to that feeling, then delight arises in him. Delight in feelings is clinging. With his clinging as condition there is becoming; with becoming as condition, birth” (M I 266).

31. (iii) Just as another of the four men sees the tip of the creeper first, and seizing the tip, he follows it down to the root and takes all of it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the end down to the beginning thus: “‘With birth as condition, ageing-and-death,’ so it was said. But is there ageing-anddeath with birth as condition, or not, or how is it here?—There is ageing-anddeath with birth as condition, so we think, venerable sir. [524] ‘With becoming as condition, birth,’ so it was said … ‘With ignorance as condition there are formations,’ so it was said. But are there formations with ignorance as condition, or not, or how is it here?—There are formations with ignorance as condition, so we think, venerable sir” (M I 261).

32. (iv) Just as one of the four men sees only the middle of the creeper first, and after cutting it in the middle and tracing it down as far as the root, he takes it away and uses it, so the Blessed One teaches it from the middle down to the beginning thus: “And these four nutriments, bhikkhus: what is their source? What is their origin? From what are they born? By what are they produced? These four nutriments have craving as their source, craving as their origin, they are born from craving, produced by craving. Craving: what is its source? … Feeling: … Contact: … The sixfold base: … Mentality-materiality: … Consciousness: … Formations: what is their source? … By what are they produced? Formations have ignorance as their source … they are … produced by ignorance” (S II 11f.).

33. Why does he teach it thus? Because the dependent origination is wholly beneficial and because he has himself acquired elegance in instructing. For the dependent origination is entirely beneficial: starting from any one of the four starting points, it leads only to the penetration of the proper way. And the Blessed One has acquired elegance in instructing: it is because he has done so through possession of the four kinds of perfect confidence and the four discriminations and by achieving the fourfold profundity (§304) that he teaches the Dhamma by various methods.

34. But it should be recognized, in particular, that (i) when he sees that people susceptible of teaching are confused about the analysis of the causes of the process [of becoming], he employs his teaching of it forwards starting from the beginning in order to show that the process carries on according to its own peculiar laws and for the purpose of showing the order of arising. (iii) And it should be recognized that when he surveys the world as fallen upon trouble in the way stated thus, “This world has fallen upon trouble; it is born, ages, dies, passes away, and reappears” (S II 10), he employs his teaching of it backwards starting from the end in order to show the [laws governing the] various kinds of suffering beginning with ageing and death, which he discovered himself in the early stage of his penetration. And (iv) it should be recognized that he employs his teaching of it backwards from the middle down to the beginning in order to show how the succession of cause and fruit extends back into the past [existence], and again forwards from the past, in accordance with his definition of nutriment as the source [of ignorance] (see M I 47f.). And (ii) it should be recognized that he employs his teaching of it forwards from the middle up to the end in order to show how the future [existence] follows on [through rebirth] from arousing in the present causes for [rebirth] in the future.

35. Of these methods of presentation, that cited here should be understood to be that stated in forward order starting from the beginning in order to show to people susceptible of teaching who are confused about the laws of the process [of becoming] that the process carries on according to its own peculiar laws, [525] and for the purpose of showing the order of arising.

36. But why is ignorance stated as the beginning here? How then, is ignorance the causeless root-cause of the world like the Primordial Essence of those who assert the existence of a Primordial Essence? It is not causeless. For a cause of ignorance is stated thus, “With the arising of cankers there is the arising of ignorance” (M I 54). But there is a figurative way in which it can be treated as the root cause. What way is that? When it is made to serve as a starting point in an exposition of the round [of becoming].

37. For the Blessed One gives the exposition of the round with one of two things as the starting point: either ignorance, according as it is said, “No first beginning of ignorance is made known, bhikkhus, before which there was no ignorance, and after which there came to be ignorance. And while it is said thus, bhikkhus, nevertheless it is made known that ignorance has its specific condition” (A V 113); or craving for becoming, according as it is said, “No first beginning of craving for becoming is made known, bhikkhus, before which there was no craving for becoming, and after which there came to be craving for becoming. And while it is said thus, bhikkhus, nevertheless it is made known that craving for becoming has its specific condition” (A V 116).

38. But why does the Blessed One give the exposition of the round with those two things as starting points? Because they are the outstanding causes of kamma that leads to happy and unhappy destinies.

39. Ignorance is an outstanding cause of kamma that leads to unhappy destinies. Why? Because, just as when a cow to be slaughtered is in the grip of the torment of burning with fire and belabouring with cudgels, and being crazed with torment, she drinks the hot water although it gives no satisfaction and does her harm, so the ordinary man who is in the grip of ignorance performs kamma of the various kinds beginning with killing living things that leads to unhappy destinies, although it gives no satisfaction because of the burning of defilements and does him harm because it casts him into an unhappy destiny.

40. But craving for becoming is an outstanding cause of kamma that leads to happy destinies. Why? Because, just as that same cow, through her craving for cold water, starts drinking cold water, which gives satisfaction and allays her torment, so the ordinary man in the grip of craving for becoming performs kamma of the various kinds beginning with abstention from killing living things that leads to happy destinies and gives satisfaction because it is free from the burning of defilements and, by bringing him to a happy destiny, allays the torment of suffering [experienced] in the unhappy destinies.

41. Now, as regards these two states that are starting points in expositions of the process [of becoming], in some instances the Blessed One teaches the Dhamma based on a single one of these states, for instance, [526] “Accordingly, bhikkhus, formations have ignorance as their cause, consciousness has formations as its cause” (S II 31), etc.; likewise, “Bhikkhus, craving increases in one who dwells seeing enjoyment in things productive of clinging;with craving as condition there is clinging” (S II 84), and so on. In some instances he does so based on both, for instance: “So, bhikkhus, for the fool who is hindered by ignorance and tethered by craving there arises this body. Now, this body [with its six internal bases] and externally [the six bases due to] mentality-materiality make a duality. Due to this duality there is contact, as well as the six [pairs of] bases, touched through which the fool feels pleasure and pain” (S II 23f.), and so on.

42. Of these ways of presentation, that cited here in the form “With ignorance as condition there are formations” should be understood as one based on a single state. This, firstly, is how the exposition should be known “as to different ways of teaching.”

43. 2. As to meaning: as to the meaning of the words “ignorance” and so on. Bodily misconduct, etc., for example, “ought not to be found” (avindiya), in the sense of being unfit to be carried out; the meaning is that it should not be permitted. It finds (vindati) what ought not to be found (avindiya), thus it is ignorance (avijjā). Conversely, good bodily conduct, etc. “ought to be found” (vindiya). It does not find (na vindati) what ought to be found (vindiya), thus it is ignorance (avijjā). Also it prevents knowing (avidita) the meaning of collection in the aggregates, the meaning of actuating in the bases, the meaning of voidness in the elements, the meaning of predominance in the faculties, the meaning of reality in the truths, thus it is ignorance (avijjā). Also it prevents knowing the meaning of suffering, etc., described in four ways as “oppression,” etc. (XVI.15), thus it is ignorance. Through all the kinds of generations, destinies, becoming, stations of consciousness, and abodes of beings in the endless round of rebirths it drives beings on (AntaVIrahite saṃsāre … satte JAvāpeti), thus it is ignorance (avijjā). Amongst women, men, etc., which are in the ultimate sense non-existent, it hurries on (paramatthato AVIJjamānesu itthi-purisādisu JAvati), and amongst the aggregates, etc., which are existent, it does not hurry on (vijjamānesu pi khandhādisu na javati), thus it is ignorance (avijjā). Furthermore, it is ignorance because it conceals the physical bases and objects of eye-consciousness, etc., and the dependent origination and dependently-originated states.

44. That due to (paṭicca) which fruit comes (eti) is a condition (paccaya). “Due to” (paṭicca) = “not without that”; the meaning is, not dispensing with it. “Comes” (eti) means both “arises” and “occurs.” Furthermore, the meaning of “condition” is the meaning of “help.” It is ignorance and that is a condition, thus it is “ignorance as condition,” whence the phrase “with ignorance as condition.”

“They form the formed” (S III 87), thus they are formations. Furthermore, formations are twofold, namely, (a) formations with ignorance as condition, and (b) formations given in the texts with the word “formations” (saṅkhāra). Herein, (a) the three, namely, formations of merit, of demerit, and of the imperturbable, and the three, namely, the bodily, the verbal, and the mental formations, which make six, are “formations with ignorance as condition.” And all these are simply mundane profitable and unprofitable volition.

45. But (b) these four, namely, (i) the formation consisting of the formed (saṅkhata-saṅkhāra), [527] (ii) the formation consisting of the kamma-formed (abhisaṅkhata-saṅkhāra), (iii) the formation consisting in the act of kamma-forming (forming by kamma—abhisaṅkharaṇa-saṅkhāra), and (iv) the formation consisting in momentum (payogābhisaṅkhāra), are the kinds of formations that have come in the texts with the word “formations.”

46. Herein, (i) all states with conditions, given in such passages as “Formations are impermanent” (S I 158; D II 157), are formations consisting of the formed. (ii) In the Commentaries material and immaterial states of the three planes generated by kamma are called formations consisting of the kamma-formed. These are also included in the passage, “Formations are impermanent.” But there is no instance in the texts where they are found separately. (iii) Profitable and unprofitable volition of the three planes is called the formation consisting in the act of kamma-forming. It is found in the texts in such passages as “Bhikkhus, this man in his ignorance forms the formation of merit” (S II 82). (iv) But it is bodily and mental energy that is called the formation consisting in momentum. This is given in the texts in such passages as “The wheel, having gone as far as the impetus (abhisaṅkhāra) carried it, stood as though it were fixed” (A I 112).

47. And not only these, but many other kinds of formations are given in the texts with the word “formation” (saṅkhāra), in the way beginning, “When a bhikkhu is attaining the cessation of perception and feeling, friend Visākha, first his verbal formation ceases, then his bodily formation, then his mental formation” (M I 302). But there is no formation among them not included by (i) “formations consisting of the formed.”

48. What is said next after this in the [rest of the exposition] beginning, “With formations as condition, consciousness” should be understood in the way already stated. But as to those words not yet dealt with: It cognizes (vijānāti), thus it is consciousness (viññāṇa—see M I 292). It bends [towards an object] (namati), thus it is mentality (nāma). It is molested (ruppati), thus it is materiality (rūpa—see S III 87). It provides a range for the origins (āye tanoti) and it leads on what is actuated (āyatañ ca nayati), thus it is a base (āyatana—see XV.4). It touches (phusati), thus it is contact (phassa). It is felt (vedayati), thus it is feeling (vedanā—see M I 293). It frets (or it thirsts—paritassati), thus it is craving (taṇhā). It clings (upādiyati), thus it is clinging (upādāna). It becomes (bhavati) and it makes become (bhāvayati), thus it is becoming (bhava). The act of being born is birth. The act of growing old is ageing. By means of it they die, thus it is death. The act of sorrowing is sorrow. The act of lamenting is lamentation. It makes [beings] suffer (dukkhayati), thus it is pain (dukkha); or it consumes in two ways (DVedhā KHAṇati—see IV.100) by means of [the two moments (khaṇa)] arising and presence, thus it is pain (dukkha). The state of a sad mind (dummana-bhāva) is grief (domanassa). Great misery (bhuso āyāso) is despair (upāyāsa). There is means “is generated.”

49. And the words “There is” should be construed with all the terms, not only with those beginning with sorrow; for otherwise, when “With ignorance as condition, formations” was said, it would not be evident what they did, but by construing it with the words “There is” (or “there are”), since “ignorance as condition” stands for “it is ignorance and that is a condition,” consequently [528] the defining of the condition and the conditionally-arisen state is effected by the words “with ignorance as condition there are formations.” And so in each instance.

50. Thus signifies the process described. By that he shows that it is with ignorance, etc., as the causes and not with creation by an Overlord, and so on. Of that: of that aforesaid. Whole: unmixed, entire. Mass of suffering: totality of suffering; not a living being, not pleasure, beauty, and so on. Arising: generating. There is: is brought about.

This is how the exposition should be known here “as to meaning.”

51. 3. As to character, etc.: as to the characteristics of ignorance, etc., that is to say, ignorance has the characteristic of unknowing. Its function is to confuse. It is manifested as concealing. Its proximate cause is cankers. Formations have the characteristic of forming. Their function is to accumulate.^[3] They are manifested as volition. Their proximate cause is ignorance. Consciousness has the characteristic of cognizing. Its function is to go before (see Dhp 1). It manifests itself as rebirth-linking. Its proximate cause is formations; or its proximate cause is the physical-basis-cum-object. Mentality (nāma) has the characteristic of bending (namana). Its function is to associate. It is manifested as inseparability of its components, [that is, the three aggregates]. Its proximate cause is consciousness. Materiality (rūpa) has the characteristic of being molested (ruppana). Its function is to be dispersed. It is manifested as [morally] indeterminate. Its proximate cause is consciousness. The sixfold base (saḷāyatana) has the characteristic of actuating (āyatana). Its function is to see, and so on. It is manifested as the state of physical basis and door. Its proximate cause is mentality-materiality. Contact has the characteristic of touching. Its function is impingement. It manifests itself as coincidence [of internal and external base and consciousness]. Its proximate cause is the sixfold base. Feeling has the characteristic of experiencing. Its function is to exploit the stimulus of the objective field. It is manifested as pleasure and pain. Its proximate cause is contact. Craving has the characteristic of being a cause [that is, of suffering]. Its function is to delight. It is manifested as insatiability. Its proximate cause is feeling. Clinging has the characteristic of seizing. Its function is not to release. It is manifested as a strong form of craving and as [false] view. Its proximate cause is craving. Becoming has the characteristic of being kamma and kamma-result. Its function is to make become and to become. It is manifested as profitable, unprofitable, and indeterminate. Its proximate cause is clinging. The characteristic of birth, etc., should be understood as stated in the Description of the Truths (XVI.32f.). This is how the exposition should be known here “as to character, etc.”

52. 4. As to singlefold, and so on: here ignorance is singlefold as unknowing, unseeing, delusion, and so on. It is twofold as “no theory” and “wrong theory” (cf. §303);^[4] likewise as prompted and unprompted. It is threefold as associated with the three kinds of feeling. It is fourfold as non-penetration of the four truths. It is fivefold as concealing the danger in the five kinds of destinies. [529] It should, however, be understood that all the immaterial factors [of the dependent origination] have a sixfold nature with respect to the [six] doors and objects.

53. Formations are singlefold as states subject to cankers (Dhs 3), states with the nature of result (Dhs 1), and so on (cf. Vibh 62).^[5] They are twofold as profitable and unprofitable; likewise as limited and exalted, inferior and medium, with certainty of wrongness and without certainty. They are threefold as the formation of merit and the rest. They are fourfold as leading to the four kinds of generation. They are fivefold as leading to the five kinds of destiny.

54. Consciousness is singlefold as mundane (Dhs 3), resultant (Dhs 1), and so on. It is twofold as with root-cause and without root-cause and so on. It is threefold as included in the three kinds of becoming; as associated with the three kinds of feeling; and as having no root-cause, having two root-causes, and having three root-causes. It is fourfold and fivefold [respectively] according to generation and destiny.

55. Mentality-materiality is singlefold as dependent on consciousness, and as having kamma as its condition. It is twofold as having an object [in the case of mentality], and having no object [in the case of materiality]. It is threefold as past, and so on. It is fourfold and fivefold respectively according to generation and destiny.

56. The sixfold base is singlefold as the place of origin and meeting. It is twofold as sensitivity of primary elements and as consciousness [of the sixth base], and so on. It is threefold as having for its domain [objective fields that are] contiguous, non-contiguous, and neither (see XIV.46). It is fourfold and fivefold respectively as included in the kinds of generation and destiny.

The singlefoldness, etc., of contact, etc., should be understood in this way too.

This is how the exposition should be known here “as to singlefold and so on.”

57. 5. As to defining of the factors: sorrow, etc., are stated here for the purpose of showing that the Wheel of Becoming never halts;for they are produced in the fool who is afflicted by ageing and death, according as it is said: “The untaught ordinary man, bhikkhus, on being touched by painful bodily feeling, sorrows, grieves and laments, beating his breast, he weeps and becomes distraught” (M III 285; S IV 206). And as long as these go on occurring so long does ignorance, and so the Wheel of Becoming renews [its revolution]: “With ignorance as condition there are formations” and so on. That is why the factors of the dependent origination should be understood as twelve by taking those [that is, sorrow, etc.,] along with ageing-and-death as one summarization. This is how the exposition should be known here “as to defining of the factors.”

58. This, firstly, is the brief treatment. The following method, however, is in detail.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

The term “analyzer” (vibhajjavādin) appears at A V 190, and at M II 197, in this sense, used to describe the Buddha and his followers, who do not rashly give unqualified answers to questions that need analyzing before being answered.

[2]:

“The ‘law’ (dhamma) is the text of the dependent origination. The “meaning” (attha) is the meaning of that. Or they are the cause, and the fruit of the cause here, is what is meant. Or “law” (dhamma) is regularity (dhammatā). Now some, misinterpreting the meaning of the sutta passage, ‘Whether Perfect Ones arise or do not arise, there yet remains that element …’ (S II 25), wrongly describe the regularity of the dependent origination as a ‘permanent dependent origination,’ instead of which it should be described as having the individual essence of a cause (kāraṇa), defined according to its own fruit, in the way stated. And some misinterpret the meaning of the dependent origination thus, ‘Without cessation, without arising’ (anuppādaṃ anirodhaṃ) instead of taking the unequivocal meaning in the way stated” (Vism-mhṭ 561).

The last-mentioned quotation “Without cessation, without arising” (anuppādaṃ anirodhaṃ), seems almost certainly to refer to a well-known stanza in Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamādhyamika Kārikā:

anirodhaṃ anutpādaṃ anucchedaṃ aśāsrataṃ
anekarthaṃ anānarthaṃ anāgamaṃ anirgamaṃ
yaḥ pratītyasamutpādaṃ prapañcopaśamaṃ śivaṃ
deśayamāsa sambuddhas taṃ vande vadatāṃ varaṃ.

[3]:

“Formations ‘accumulate,’ work, for the purpose of rebirth. So that is their function. To accumulate is to heap up. Consciousness’s function is ‘to go before’ since it precedes mentality-materiality at rebirth-linking. Mentality’s function is ‘to associate’ since it joins with consciousness in a state of mutuality. ‘Inseparability of its components’ is owing to their having no separate existence [mentality here being feeling, perception, and formations]. Materiality is dispersible since it has in itself nothing [beyond the water element] to hold it [absolutely] together, so ‘its function is to be dispersed’; that is why, when rice grains, etc., are pounded, they get scattered and reduced to powder. It is called ‘indeterminate’ to distinguish it from mentality, which is profitable, etc., at different times” (Vism-mhṭ 571).

[4]:

“‘No theory’ is unknowing about suffering, etc., ‘wrong theory’ is perverted perception of what is foul, etc., as beautiful, etc., or else ‘no theory’ is unassociated with [false] view, and ‘wrong theory’ is associated with it” (Vism-mhṭ 751). This use of the word paṭipatti as “theory,” rare in Pali but found in Sanskrit, is not in PED. An alternative rendering for these two terms might be “agnosticism” and “superstition” (see also XIV.163, 177).

[5]:

“‘With the nature of result, and so on’: the words ‘and so on’ here include ‘neithertrainer-nor-non-trainer,’ (Dhs 2) ‘conducive to fetters’ (Dhs 3), and so on. [§54] ‘Mundane resultant and so on’: the words ‘and so on’ here include ‘indeterminate’ (Dhs 2), ‘formed’ (Dhs 2), and so on. ‘With root-cause and without root-cause, and so on’: the words ‘and so on’ here include ‘prompted,’ ‘unprompted,’ and so on” (Vism-mhṭ).