General (conclusion to the faculties and truths)

84. 9. As to knowledge’s function (see §14): the exposition should be understood according to knowledge of the truths. For knowledge of the truths is twofold, namely, knowledge as idea and knowledge as penetration (cf. S V 431f; also XXII.92ff.). Herein, knowledge as idea is mundane and occurs through hearsay, etc., about cessation and the path. Knowledge consisting in penetration, which is supramundane, penetrates the four truths as its function by making cessation its object, according as it is said, “Bhikkhus, he who sees suffering sees also the origin of suffering, sees also the cessation of suffering, sees also the way leading to the cessation of suffering” (S V 437), and it should be repeated thus of all [four truths]. But its function will be made clear in the purification by knowledge and vision (XXII.92f.). [511]

85. When this knowledge is mundane, then, occurring as the overcoming of obsessions, the knowledge of suffering therein forestalls the [false] view of individuality; the knowledge of origin forestalls the annihilation view; the knowledge of cessation forestalls the eternity view; the knowledge of the path forestalls the moral-inefficacy-of-action view. Or alternatively, the knowledge of suffering forestalls wrong theories of fruit, in other words, [seeing] lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self in the aggregates, which are devoid of lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self; and knowledge of origin forestalls wrong theories of cause that occur as finding a reason where there is none, such as “The world occurs owing to an Overlord, a Basic Principle, Time, Nature (Individual Essence),” etc.;^[1] the knowledge of cessation forestalls such wrong theories of cessation as taking final release to be in the immaterial world, in a World Apex (Shrine), etc.; and the path knowledge forestalls wrong theories of means that occur by taking to be the way of purification what is not the way of purification and consists in devotion to indulgence in the pleasures of sense desire and in self-mortification. Hence this is said:

As long as a man is vague about the world.
About its origin, about its ceasing.
About the means that lead to its cessation.
So long he cannot recognize the truths.

This is how the exposition should be understood here as to knowledge’s function.

86. 10. As to division of content: all states excepting craving and states free from cankers are included in the truth of suffering. The thirty-six modes of behaviour of craving^[2] are included in the truth of origin. The truth of cessation is unmixed. As regards the truth of the path: the heading of right view includes the fourth road to power consisting in inquiry, the understanding faculty, the understanding power, and the investigation-of-states enlightenment factor. The term right thinking includes the three kinds of applied thought beginning with that of renunciation (D III 215). The term right speech includes the four kinds of good verbal conduct (A II 131). The term right action includes the three kinds of good bodily conduct (cf. M I 287). The heading right livelihood includes fewness of wishes and contentment. Or all these [three] constitute the virtue loved by Noble Ones, and the virtue loved by Noble Ones has to be embraced by the hand of faith; consequently the faith faculty, the faith power, and the road to power consisting in zeal are included because of the presence of these [three]. The term right effort includes fourfold right endeavour, the energy faculty, energy power, and energy enlightenment factor. The term right mindfulness includes the fourfold foundation of mindfulness, the mindfulness faculty, the mindfulness power, and the mindfulness enlightenment factor. The term right concentration includes the three kinds of concentration beginning with that accompanied by applied and sustained thought (D III 219), consciousness concentration, the concentration faculty, [512] the concentration power, and the enlightenment factors of happiness, tranquillity, concentration, and equanimity.

This is how the exposition should be understood as to division of content.

87. 11. As to simile: The truth of suffering should be regarded as a burden, the truth of origin as the taking up of the burden, the truth of cessation as the putting down of the burden, the truth of the path as the means to putting down the burden (see S III 26), The truth of suffering is like a disease, the truth of origin is like the cause of the disease, the truth of cessation is like the cure of the disease, and the truth of the path is like the medicine. Or the truth of suffering is like a famine, the truth of origin is like a drought, the truth of cessation is like plenty, and the truth of the path is like timely rain.

Furthermore, these truths can be understood in this way by applying these similes: enmity, the cause of the enmity, the removal of the enmity, and the means to remove the enmity; a poison tree, the tree’s root, the cutting of the root, and the means to cut the root;fear, the cause of fear, freedom from fear, and the means to attain it;the hither shore, the great flood, the further shore, and the effort to reach it.

This is how the exposition should be understood as to simile.

88. 12. As to tetrad: (a) there is suffering that is not noble truth, (b) there is noble truth that is not suffering, (c) there is what is both suffering and noble truth, and (d) there is what is neither suffering nor noble truth. So also with origin and the rest.

89. Herein, (a) though states associated with the path and the fruits of asceticism are suffering since they are suffering due to formations (see §35) because of the words, “What is impermanent is painful” (S II 53; III 22), still they are not the noble truth [of suffering], (b) Cessation is a noble truth but it is not suffering, (c) The other two noble truths can be suffering because they are impermanent, but they are not so in the real sense of that for the full-understanding of which (see §28) the life of purity is lived under the Blessed One. The five aggregates [as objects] of clinging, except craving, are in all aspects both suffering and noble truth. [513] (d) The states associated with the path and the fruits of asceticism are neither suffering in the real sense of that for the full-understanding of which the life of purity is lived under the Blessed One, nor are they noble truth. Origin, etc., should also be construed in the corresponding way. This is how the exposition should be understood here as to tetrad.

90. 13. As to void, singlefold, and so on: firstly, as to void: in the ultimate sense all the truths should be understood as void because of the absence of (i) any experiencer, (ii) any doer, (iii) anyone who is extinguished, and (iv) any goer. Hence this is said:

For there is suffering, but none who suffers;
Doing exists although there is no door.
Extinction is but no extinguished person;
Although there is a path, there is no goer.

Or alternatively:

So void of lastingness, and beauty, pleasure, self,
Is the first pair, and void of self the deathless state,
And void of lastingness, of pleasure and of self
Is the path too; for such is voidness in these four.

91. Or three are void of cessation, and cessation is void of the other three. Or the cause is void of the result, because of the absence of suffering in the origin, and of cessation in the path; the cause is not gravid with its fruit like the Primordial Essence of those who assert the existence of Primordial Essence. And the result is void of the cause owing to the absence of inherence of the origin in suffering and of the path in cessation; the fruit of a cause does not have its cause inherent in it, like the two atoms, etc., of those who assert inherence. Hence this is said:

Here three are of cessation void;
Cessation void, too, of these three;
The cause of its effect is void,
Void also of its cause the effect must be.

This, in the first place, is how the exposition should be understood as to void.^[3] [514]

92. 14. As to singlefold and so on: and here all suffering is of one kind as the state of occurrence. It is of two kinds as mentality-materiality. It is of three kinds as divided into rebirth-process becoming in the sense sphere, fine-material sphere, and immaterial sphere. It is of four kinds classed according to the four nutriments. It is of five kinds classed according to the five aggregates [as objects] of clinging.

93. Also origin is of one kind as making occur. It is of two kinds as associated and not associated with [false] view. It is of three kinds as craving for sense desires, craving for becoming, and craving for non-becoming. It is of four kinds as abandonable by the four paths. It is of five kinds classed as delight in materiality, and so on. It is of six kinds classed as the six groups of craving.

94. Also cessation is of one kind being the unformed element. But indirectly it is of two kinds as “with result of past clinging left” and as “without result of past clinging left”;^[4] and of three kinds as the stilling of the three kinds of becoming; and of four kinds as approachable by the four paths; and of five kinds as the subsiding of the five kinds of delight; and of six kinds classed according to the destruction of the six groups of craving.

95. Also the path is of one kind as what should be developed. It is of two kinds classed according to serenity and insight, or classed according to seeing and developing. It is of three kinds classed according to the three aggregates; for the [path], being selective, is included by the three aggregates, which are comprehensive, as a city is by a kingdom, according as it is said: “The three aggregates are not included in the Noble Eightfold Path, friend Visākha, but the Noble Eightfold Path is included by the three aggregates. Any right speech, any right action, any right livelihood: these are included in the virtue aggregate. Any right effort, any right mindfulness, any right concentration: these are included in the concentration aggregate. Any right view, any right thinking: these are included in the understanding aggregate” (M I 301).

96. For here the three beginning with right speech are virtue and so they are included in the virtue aggregate, being of the same kind. For although in the text the description is given in the locative case as “in the virtue aggregate,” still the meaning should be understood according to the instrumental case [that is, “by the virtue aggregate.”]

As to the three beginning with right effort, concentration cannot of its own nature cause absorption through unification on the object; but with energy accomplishing its function of exerting and mindfulness accomplishing its function of preventing wobbling, it can do so.

97. Here is a simile: three friends, [thinking,] “We will celebrate the festival,” entered a park. Then one saw a champak tree in full blossom, but he could not reach the flowers by raising his hand. The second bent down for the first to climb on his back. But although standing on the other’s back, he still could not pick them because of his unsteadiness. [515] Then the third offered his shoulder [as support]. So standing on the back of the one and supporting himself on the other’s shoulder, he picked as many flowers as he wanted and after adorning himself, he went and enjoyed the festival. And so it is with this.

98. For the three states beginning with right effort, which are born together, are like the three friends who enter the park together. The object is like the champak tree in full blossom. Concentration, which cannot of its own nature bring about absorption by unification on the object, is like the man who could not pick the flower by raising his arm. Effort is like the companion who bent down, giving his back to mount upon. Mindfulness is like the friend who stood by, giving his shoulder for support. Just as standing on the back of the one and supporting himself on the other’s shoulder he could pick as many flowers as he wanted, so too, when energy accomplishes its function of exerting and when mindfulness accomplishes its function of preventing wobbling, with the help so obtained concentration can bring about absorption by unification on the object. So here in the concentration aggregate it is only concentration that is included as of the same kind. But effort and mindfulness are included because of their action [in assisting].

99. Also as regards right view and right thinking, understanding cannot of its own nature define an object as impermanent, painful, not-self. But with applied thought giving [assistance] by repeatedly hitting [the object] it can.

100. How? Just as a money changer, having a coin placed in his hand and being desirous of looking at it on all sides equally, cannot turn it over with the power of his eye only, but by turning it over with his fingers he is able to look at it on all sides, similarly understanding cannot of its own nature define an object as impermanent and so on. But [assisted] by applied thought with its characteristic of directing the mind on to [the object] and its function of striking and threshing, as it were, hitting and turning over, it can take anything given and define it. So here in the understanding aggregate it is only right view that is included as of the same kind. But right thinking is included because of its action [in assisting].

101. So the path is included by the three aggregates. Hence it was said that it is of three kinds classed according to the three aggregates. And it is of four kinds as the path of stream-entry and so on.

102. In addition, all the truths are of one kind because they are not unreal, or because they must be directly known. They are of two kinds as (i and ii) mundane and (iii and iv) supramundane, or (i, ii, and iv) formed and (iii) unformed. They are of three kind as (ii) to be abandoned by seeing and development, (iii and iv) not to be abandoned, and (i) neither to be abandoned nor not to be abandoned. They are of four kinds classed according to what has to be fully understood, and so on (see §28).

This is how the exposition should be understood as to singlefold and so on. [516]

103. 15. As to similar and dissimilar, all the truths are similar to each other because they are not unreal, are void of self, and are difficult to penetrate, according as it is said: “What do you think, Ānanda, which is more difficult to do, more difficult to perform, that a man should shoot an arrow through a small keyhole from a distance time after time without missing or that he should penetrate the tip of a hair split a hundred times with the tip [of a similar hair]?”—“This is more difficult to do, venerable sir, more difficult to perform, that a man should penetrate the tip of a hair split a hundred times with the tip [of a similar hair].”—“They penetrate something more difficult to penetrate than that, Ānanda, who penetrate correctly thus, ‘This is suffering’ … who penetrate correctly thus, ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering’” (S V 454). They are dissimilar when defined according to their individual characteristics.

104. And the first two are similar since they are profound because hard to grasp, since they are mundane, and since they are subject to cankers. They are dissimilar in being divided into fruit and cause, and being respectively to be fully understood and to be abandoned. And the last two are similar since they are hard to grasp because profound, since they are supramundane, and since they are free from cankers. They are dissimilar in being divided into object and what has an object, and in being respectively to be realized and to be developed. And the first and third are similar since they come under the heading of result. They are dissimilar in being formed and unformed. Also the second and fourth are similar since they come under the heading of cause. They are dissimilar in being respectively entirely unprofitable and entirely profitable. And the first and fourth are similar in being formed. They are dissimilar in being mundane and supramundane. Also the second and the third are similar since they are the state of neither-trainer-nor-non-trainer (see Vibh 114). They are dissimilar in being respectively with object and without object.

A man of vision can apply
By suchlike means his talent so
That he among the truths may know
The similar and contrary.

The sixteenth chapter called “The Description of the Faculties and Truths” in the Treatise on the Development of Understanding in the Path of Purification composed for the purpose of gladdening good people.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Those who hold that there is an Overlord (Omnipotent Being) as reason say, ‘An Overlord (issara) makes the world occur, prepares it, halts, it, disposes of it.’ Those who hold that there is a Basic Principle as reason say, ‘The world is manifested from out of a Basic Principle (padhāna), and it is reabsorbed in that again.’ Those who hold the theory of Time say:

Time it is that creates beings,
Disposes of this generation;
Time watches over those who sleep;
To outstrip Time is hard indeed.

Those who hold the theory of Nature (sabhāva—individual essence) say, ‘The world appears and disappears (sambhoti vibhoti ca) just because of its nature (individual essence), like the sharp nature (essence) of thorns, like the roundness of wood-apples (kabiṭṭha = Feronia elephantum), like the variedness of wild beasts, birds, snakes, and so on.’ The word, ‘etc.’ refers to those who preach fatalism and say, ‘The occurrence of the world is due to atoms. All is due to causes effected in the past. The world is determined, like drilled gems threaded on an unbroken string.

There is no doing by a man’; and to those who preach chance: It is by chance that they occur,

By chance as well that they do not;
Pleasure and pain are due to chance,
This generation [lives] by chance;
and to those who preach liberation by chance.

“‘Taking final release to be in the immaterial world” like that of Rāmudaka, Āḷāra (see MN 26), etc., or ‘in a World Apex (World Shrine—lokathūpika)’ like that of the Nigaṇṭhas (Jains). And by the word, ‘etc.’ are included also the preachers of ‘Nibbāna here and now’ as the self’s establishment in its own self when it has become dissociated from the qualities (guṇa) owing to the non-occurrence of the Basic Principle (padhāna, Skr. pradhāna—see the Sāṃkhya system), and being in the same world as, in the presence of, or in union with, Brahmā” (Vism-mhṭ 543).

[2]:

“The ‘thirty-six modes of behaviour of craving’ are the three, craving for sense desires, for becoming, and for non-becoming, in the cases of each one of the twelve internalexternal bases; or they are those given in the Khuddakavatthu-Vibhaṅga (Vibh 391 and 396), leaving out the three periods of time, for with those they come to one hundred and eight” (Vism-mhṭ 544). “‘Thoughts of renunciation, etc.’: in the mundane moment they are the three separately, that is, non-greed, loving kindness, and compassion; they are given as one at the path moment, owing to the cutting off of greed, ill will and cruelty” (Vism-mhṭ 544).

“‘Consciousness concentration (citta-samādhi)’ is the road to power consisting of [purity of] consciousness, they say” (Vism-mhṭ 544).

[3]:

It may be noted in passing that the word anattā (not-self) is never applied directly to Nibbāna in the Suttas (and Abhidhamma), or in Bhante Buddhaghosa’s commentaries (Cf. Ch. XXI, note 4, where Vism-mhṭ is quoted explaining the scope of applicability of the “three characteristics”).

The argument introduced here that, since attā (self) is a nonexistent myth, therefore Nibbāna (the unformed dhamma, the truth of cessation) is void of self (atta-suñña) is taken up in the Saddhammappakāsinī (Hewavitarne Ce, p. 464):

All dhammas whether grouped together
In three ways, two ways, or one way,
Are void: thus here in this dispensation
Do those who know voidness make their comment.

“How so? Firstly, all mundane dhammas are void of lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self because they are destitute of lastingness, beauty, pleasure, and self. Path and fruition dhammas are void of lastingness, pleasure, and self, because they are destitute of lastingness, pleasure, and self. Nibbāna dhammas (pl.) are void of self because of the non-existence (abhāva) of self. [Secondly,] formed dhammas, both mundane and supramundane, are all void of a [permanent] living being (satta) because of the nonexistence of [such] a living being of any sort whatever. The unformed dhamma (sing.) is void of formations because of the non-existence (abhāva: or absence) of those formations too. [Thirdly,] all dhammas formed and unformed are void of self because of the non-existence of any person (puggala) called ‘self’ (attā).”

[4]:

“It is clung-to (upādiyati) by the kinds of clinging (upādāna), thus it is ‘result-ofpast-clinging’ (upādi): this is the pentad of aggregates [as objects] of clinging. Taking Nibbāna, which is the escape from that, as its stilling, its quieting, since there is remainder of it up till the last consciousness [of the Arahant], after which there is no remainder of it, the Nibbāna element is thus conventionally spoken of in two ways as ‘with result of past clinging left’ (sa-upādi-sesa) and ‘without result of past clinging left’ (an-upādi-sesa)” (Vism-mhṭ 547).