Part 5 - What are the Characteristics, Functions, Manifestations and Proximate Causes of The Pāramīs?

We shall begin this section with explanations of the words ‘characteristic’, ‘function’, ‘manifestation’, and ‘proximate cause’. We shall next deal with the definition and purport of the Perfections together with their characteristics, functions, manifestations, and proximate causes collectively, as well as individually.

Knowledge free from personality-belief (attā-diṭṭhi) is possible only through comprehension of the ultimate realities of nāma and rūpa which is attained by reflecting upon each reality in terms of its characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes. Similarly, it is only when one knows the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the pāramīs collectively, as well as individually, then one will have a clear understanding of them. Therefore, the Texts usually describe these four features concerning the Perfections.

Characteristic (Lakkhaṇa): The Commentary defines: Sāmaññaṃ vā sabhāvo vā, dhammānam lakkhanam matam. Characteristic (lakkhaṇa) has two aspects: (i) sāmañña^[1], ordinary features common to all, and (ii) sabhāva, special feature peculiar to one and not shared by others. (For example, the material qualities of pathavī (earth-element) has two characteristics, namely, (a) change, impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, not being subject to control, and (b) hardness. The characteristics under (a) are features common to other elements, whereas the characteristic of hardness is the unique feature of the earth-element only, not shared by others).

Function (Rasa): The Commentary defines: Kiccam vā tassa sampatti, rasoti paridipaye. Function is to be explained also as two aspects: kicca and sampatti. (i) Kicca rasa: function which is to be performed, and (ii) Sampatti rasa: attainment as a result thereof.

Manifestation^[2] (Paccupaṭṭhāna): The Commentary defines: Phalam va paccupatthanamupaṭṭhānākāropi vā. Whenever a person ponders deeply on a certain mind-object, what usually appears in his mind relates to the nature of the mind-object under consideration, relates to its functions, relates to its cause and relates to its effect. Thus, anyone of those, which appears in his mind concerning the mind-object he is thinking about, is called manifestation.

Proximate cause (Padaṭṭhāna): The Commentary defines: Asannakāranam yaṃ tu, padaṭṭhānanti tam matam. The immediate contributory factor for the arising of an ultimate reality is known as proximate cause.

What then are the four features of the Ten Perfections? The answer is: Dealing first with those common to all the Ten Perfections, (i) they have the characteristic of serving the interest of others; (ii) their function is to provide assistance to others (kicca rasa), or not vacillating as to fulfilment (sampatti rasa); (iii) their manifestation is the appearance in the yogi’s mind of the knowledge that they have the nature of wishing for the welfare of beings or the effect of becoming a Buddha; (iv) their proximate cause is Great Compassion (Mahākaruṇā) and skill in ways and means (Upāya-kosalla-ñāṇa ).

The four features belonging to each Perfections are:—(1) The volition founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa to relinquish, donate, give away one’s possession to others is called the Perfection of Alms-giving (Dāna).

(a) It has the characteristic of relinquishing. (b) Its function is to destroy greed that clings to materials to be given away. (c) Its manifestation is non-attachment that appears in the yogi’s mind (regarding its nature) or attainment of wealth and prosperity and happy existence (regarding its effect). (d) Its proximate cause is the object to be given, for giving is possible only when there is that object.

(1) The Perfection of Generosity is well comprehended only when it is studied thoroughly in the eight of these four aspects. When studied thus, it would be clearly and completely grasped that dāna is an act that has the characteristic of forsaking or abandoning. At the same time, it performs the task of destroying greed that tends to attach the donor to the things to be given away. To the yogi’s mind, who ponders deeply and carefully, it would appear as non-attachment to the objects of offering or it would appear as an act which could produce a favourable existence endowed with wealth and prosperity. Dāna is possible only when there exists something for one to offer.

(The same consideration applies to all the remaining Perfections.)

(2) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, wholesome physical and verbal conduct is called Perfection of Morality. In terms of Abhidhamma, it means abstention from wrong doings that should not be committed (viratī cetasikas) and volition (cetanā) to perform different duties that should be performed.

(a) It has the characteristic of not allowing one’s physical and verbal actions to become wrong but of keeping orientating them wholesome. It also has the characteristic of serving as a foundation of all good deeds. (b) Its function is to prevent one from indulging in moral depravities i.e., the three wrong physical actions and the four wrong verbal actions; or it helps one attains virtuous state with spotless and blameless conduct. (c) It manifests as purity in word and deed when the yogi reflects on its nature. (d) Its proximate cause is moral shame (hirī) and moral dread (ottapa) to do evil.

(3) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, the group of consciousness and mental concomitants which aspire after emancipation from sensual existences, after perceiving the faults of objects of sense-desires (vatthu kāma), mental defilements of greed (kilesa kāma) and various existences, is the Perfection of Renunciation;

(a) It has the characteristic of emancipation from sense-desires and of sensual existence. (b) Its function is to bring out their faults. (c) Its manifestation is realization by the yogi that it is turning away, withdrawing from these state of sensual existence. (d) It has the religious sense of urgency (saṃvega-ñāṇa) as its proximate cause.

(4) Founded on mahā-karuṇā and upāya-kosalla-ñāṇa, the mental concomitant of wisdom, which penetrates the ordinary and special characteristics of dhammas, is the Perfection of Wisdom.

(a) It has the characteristic of penetrating the real nature of dhammas; or of unerring discernment of ordinary and special characteristics of objects under contemplation, like hitting the bull’s eye with an arrow by a skilful archer. (b) Its function is to illuminate the object like a lamp (dispelling the darkness of bewilderment (moha), that hides the nature of objects). (c) Its manifestation (as to its nature) is non-confusion in the yogi’s mind with regard to objects of contemplation, like a guide showing the way to travellers who have lost their sense of direction in a forest, or as an effect, having the beneficial result of freedom from bewilderment with regard to objects of contemplation. (d) Its proximate cause is concentration (samādhi) or the four Noble Truths.

(5) Founded on mahā-karuṇā and upāya-kosalla-ñāṇa, the physical and mental endeavours for the welfare of others, is the Perfection of Energy.

(a) It has the characteristic of striving (taking pains). (b) Its function is to support and strengthen the factors which arise together with it, so that they will not become lax in performing meritorious deeds. (c) Its manifestation is steadfastness in the yogi’s mind which is opposed to sloth and torpor which are detrimental to meritorious deeds. (d) Its proximate cause is the religious sense of urgency (saṃvega-ñāṇa) or the eight factors that promote exertion (viriyarambha-vatthu).

(Saṃvega-ñāṇa: Knowledge formed by dread (ottappa) of dangers, such as birth, ageing, disease, death, and woeful states.)

Viriyārambha-vatthu: The Venerable Mahā Visuddhārama Sayadaw has described in the section on meditation in his Paramattha-sarūpa Bhedani, the eight factors which promote exertion (viriyārambha-vatthu) are: two concerning repairs and maintenance, two concerning travelling, two concerning ill-health; and two concerning taking of meals.

Two Factors concerning Repairs and Maintenance

(i) One says to oneself thus: “I have to do some mending of robes, etc. While I am engaged thus, it will not be easy for me to devote myself to the Teaching of the Buddha. I shall endeavour to do so in advance before I start mending.”

(ii) On completion of such an undertaking, he also considers: “I have finished my mending job. While I was doing it, I could not pay attention to the Teaching of the Buddha. Now I must work harder to make up for this remissness.”

Two Factors concerning Travelling

(i) He reflects: “I have to go on a journey. While going on the journey, it will not be easy to devote my attention to the Teaching of the Buddha. I shall endeavour to do so in advance before I travel.”

(ii) After the journey, he considers: “I have made the journey. While I was travelling, I could not devote my attention to the Teaching of the Buddha. Now I must work harder to make up for this remissness.”

Two Factors concerning Ill health

(i) He reflects when he begins to suffer slight illness: “I am feeling indisposed. The ailment may grow worse. I will work hard before it does.”

(ii) While recuperating, he reflects: “I have just recovered from illness, it may recur at any time. I will make an effort before old sickness reappears.”

Two Factors concerning Partaking of Meals

(i) When sufficient alms-food is not available, he reflects: “I have come back from alms-round only with a little food. A small meal keeps my body light and fit, free from sloth and torpor. I shall immediately start putting an effort.”

(ii) Having obtained sufficient alms-food, he reflects: “I have come back from alms-round with enough food which will give me strength to work hard. I shall immediately start working energetically.”'

These are the eight factors that promote exertion (viriyārambha-vatthu). As against these factors, there are eight others which encourage indolence (kusīta-vatthu).

When one has to do some repair, one delays, saying: “It will make me tired. I shall have a good sleep before doing the repair.” When one has to go on a journey, too, one says in the same manner.

When one starts feeling unwell, one complains of one’s feebleness and tries to sleep. When one has had enough food, one simply dozes, for one' s stomach is heavy. When one has done the repair, or come back from the journey, or recovered from illness, or had meagre food, one grumbles: “I am tired out; I shall take rest.” In this way, one foolishly excuses oneself for not making efforts to cultivate meritoriousness.

The eight vīriyārambha-vatthu and eight kusīta-vatthu are stated in 10-Sangiti Sutta, Pāthika Vagga of the Dīgha Nikāya.

(6) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, tolerance to wrong-doings of others (or in terms of Abhidhamma, the group of consciousness and mental concomitants that arise in such a mode of tolerance headed by non-aversion, adosa) is the Perfection of Forbearance.

(a) It has the characteristic of bearing with patience. (b) Its function is to overcome both desirable and undesirable objects. (One, who is not endowed with endurance, adheres to greed when encountering pleasant, desirable objects; and to aversion, when encountering unpleasant, undesirable objects. One is then said to be defeated by both desirable objects and undesirable objects. One, who is endowed with endurance, stands firmly against keeping away from both greed and aversion. Forbearance is thus said to overcome all sense objects whether desirable or undesirable.) (c) Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is patient, acceptance of both desirable objects and undesirable objects or non-opposition to them. (d) Its proximate cause is seeing things as they really are.

(7) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, speaking the truth and keeping one’s word is the Perfection of Truthfulness. (In terms of Abhidhamma, it is the mental concomitant of abstinence (virati-cetasika) or volition (cetanā-cetasika) or wisdom (paññā-cetasika) depending on circumstance.)

(a) It has the characteristic of veracity. (b) Its function is to make clear the truth as it is. (c) Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is nobility, sweetness and pleasantness. (d) Its proximate cause is purity of deed, word and thought.

(8) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, an unshaken determination to pursue meritoriousness is the Perfection of Resolution. (In terms of Abhidhamma, it is the group of consciousness and mental concomitants arising in such a mode of resolution).

(a) It has the characteristics of unshaken determination in fulfilment of Perfections, Sacrifices, and Moral practices as requisites of Enlightenment. (b) Its function is to overcome all demeritoriousness that are opposed to the requisites of Enlightenment. (c) Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is steadfastness in fulfilment of the requisites of Enlightenment. (d) Its proximate cause is the requisites of Enlightenment.

(9) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, service to the welfare and happiness of the world is the Perfection of Loving-kindness. It is the mental concomitant of non-aversion, the adosa cetasika in terms of Abhidhamma.

(a) It has the characteristic of wishing prosperity to all beings. (b) Its function is to work for the welfare of beings in fulfilment of that wish; (or) its function is removing the nine causes of resentment^[99]. (c) Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is serenity. (d) Its proximate cause is seeing beings as agreeable. (No development of loving-kindness is possible if one looks at them as disagreeable ones.)

(10) Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa, the attitude of impartiality towards desirable and undesirable conditioned beings, discarding love and hate, is the Perfection of Equanimity. (In terms of Abhidhamma, it is the mental concomitant of equipoise (tatramajjhattatā), which arises in such modes.)

(a) It has the characteristic of taking up the mental position between love and hate. (b) Its function is to have an impartial view. (c) Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is allaying both love and hate. (d) Its proximate cause is reflection that all beings are owner of their own deeds (kamma).

Each of the above descriptions of the Perfections begins with the qualifying words: “Founded on mahākaruṇā and upāya-kosalla ñāṇa.” These two attributes form the basic virtues, which are always present in the mental continuum of Bodhisattas and only acts of dāna, sīla etc., thus founded on them constitute the pāramīs.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Sāmañña and sabhāva, both of ultimate realities, are known as lakkhana;(i) sāmañna: features common to all, and (ii) sabhāva: features not shared by others but possessed by one and is thus unique (visesa).

[2]:

Manifestation should be known as phala and upaṭṭhānākāra; (i) phala;the result of the ultimate realities and (ii) upaṭṭhānākāra; the way something manifests to the yogi. Whenever the yogi ponders deeply over a certain ultimate reality, what relates to the nature, function, cause, or effect of that reality appears in his mind. Thus something relating to any of these four and appearing in the yogis mind is called manifestation.

[3]:

Nine causes of resentment: For details, see nine causes of anger, described under the Perfection of Forbearance in Chapter VI, Anudīpanī: Chapter IV.