Part 1 - Introduction (Buddhist literature)

Indian culture is highly indebted to Buddhism and Buddhist literature for inducting certain rich thought in its texture and providing certain tissues that are resplendent for all time to come in their own light in its magnificent fabric. Buddhism is noted for its lofty philosophy of Humanism, the emphasis placed by it on the qualities of non-violence and truth, maintenance of purity of character and newness of thought. It is because of this, that Buddhism could spread itself in different parts of the globe and many countries accepted it as its national faith. It is strange that though Buddhism originated from India it could not exist in the country of its origin for long time to come, but transcended the boundaries of the country of its origin and got itself spread in the neighbouring countries like Burma and Tibet, China and Japan. Just as Buddhism became one of the great religious and spiritual movements of the world, a great part of the Buddhist literature in Pāli and Sanskrit languages was also universalized. Even since then, Buddhist literature has inspired the minds of thinkers and the hearts of poet’s world over. The post -modern civilization has once again challenged the peaceful co-existence of nations and the whole of the culture biome. Through wide impact of Buddhist thought preserved in ancient Indian Buddhist literature the nations of the world can be led out of the impase in which modern man is miserably enmeshed today. With the Buddhist literature only we set our foot in the bright day light of history and even the darkness of history of Vedic and the epic literature is dispelled to certain extent by this light. Here different aspects of Buddhist literature require a fresh investing action with fresh points of view.

Buddhist literature is preserved mainly in four Indian languages:

1. The famous Buddhist poet Aśvaghoṣa wrote in standard Sanskrit language. His Sanskrit is flawless, although it does not always follow strictly the rules of Pāṇini's grammar. Many Sanskrit works of Brahmanical tradition too ignored these rules. The philosophical texts of Sarvāstivāda, Vijñanavāda and Mādhyamika schools of Buddhism too were composed in the similar variety of Sanskrit.

2. The second is middle Indic dialect in which the Prākṛit Dhammapāda is written and which is published by Senart in JAS, IX - 12 in 1898, pp.193. This text was reprinted by B. Barua and S. Mitra in 1921 with a translation of Senart's new textual notes and exegetic notes. Some scholars are of the view that the language of this text was based on a north -western middle Indian dialect. There is no evidence to prove the existence of any such religious texts, which might have formed part of a canon and preserved in any middle Indian dialect.

3. The third language preserving the Buddhist religious literature contains the largest Buddhist literature, even now preserved in original. It is called Pāli and is considered to be the sacred language of the Theravāda Buddhism. Opinions of scholars as to the origin of this middle Indic language are divided. The majority of them believe that it is a literary language based on Western or west central middle Indic dialect of Buddha's time.

4. The fourth language is the main subject of the present survey. Different names have been suggested by different scholars. Previously it was called ‘Gāthā dialect’. Scholars like senart and M. Winternitz named it mixed Sanskrit. Similarly opinions regarding the origin and linguistic features of this language also differ. At the very outset it seems essential to point -out that the Buddhist religious literature composed in Pāli language is certainly rich and vast. However, it does not represent the literature of all the branches of Buddhism and is confined to the literature of one particular Buddhist, namely the Theravāda. In addition to it several other Buddhist sects produced their religious literature in several other languages mentioned above. The Theravāda tradition asserts that from the earliest times there were differences of opinions among the early disciples of the Buddha regarding the usage of a language for the propagation of Buddha's words. It is clearly mentioned in the texts of the Theravādins that the Buddha directed his disciples to learn and preach his Dhamma words in their respective dialects. Such a liberal attitude of the master paved the way for collecting his teachings in different dialects and languages. A Buddhist monk -scholar of 8th century A. D. named Vinitadeva also says that the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Mahāsānghikas Prākṛita, the Sammitiyas Apabhraṃśa and the Sthaviravādins Paiśacī. It shows that there existed a valuable literature of Buddhist, which was composed in languages other than Pāli. As most of the north Indian Buddhist texts of several Buddhist schools were composed in mixed and pure Sanskrit, therefore the analysis of this language and literature is essential to have a complete and clear picture of Indian Buddhist literature.

Some of the points to be discussed in this brief survey are:

A. Nomenclature of the language.,

B. Origin of the language or the identification of a dialect or dialects on which it is based.

C. brief survey of the Buddhist literature composed in pure and mixed / hybrid Sanskrit.

A. Nomenclature of the language:

As mentioned above scholars had suggested several names for this language. We propose to examine each and try to ascertain a most befitting nomenclature of this variety of Sanskrit. We intend to solve the problem of nomenclature with the hypothesis that unlike the standard Sanskrit, it was commonly understood even among the common men. Therefore it was used commonly by the compilers of the Hindu Purāṇas, Buddhists and the Jainas, Its designation as Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit, is inappropriate. In fact, it is a language exhibiting the tendency of common Sanskrit. Purāṇas were also composed in this very simple Sanskrit. Taking note of various linguistical irregularities, the scholars like Kilhorn and Keith expressed the opinion that the Purāṇas are the Sanskrit renderings o Pāli originals or any other Prākṛit containing the traces of their originals here and there, Prof. T. Burrow says that the language of the Purāṇas is the Sanskrit of common usage. Prof. Jacobi also holds the same view. Therefore we may proceed with the hypothesis that there really existed a Sanskrit language, which was not regularized by the grammar of Pāṇini and was a medium of common conversation.

B. Origin of the language or the identification of a dialect or dialects on which it is based:

Edgerton has examined the issue of the origin of Buddhist Sanskrit in detail. However his findings on this matter seem to be obscure and self -contradictory. For instance, in the beginning he says that it is based primarily on an old middle Indic vernacular not otherwise identifiable. In the very next sentence that even its middle Indic aspects are dialectically somewhat mixed. According to him is extensively influenced by Sanskrit. In spite of containing most of the linguistic (Phonological as well as morphological) peculiarities of standard Sanskrit language it clearly exhibits the linguistic features of several middle Indic vernaculars like Pāli. Therefore it is often suggested that it is neither completely an old Indo Aryan language nor middle Indo Aryan.

Most likely a group of the disciples of the Buddha from Brahmana family interpreted the instructions of the Buddha for learning his teaching in different vernaculars in a specific way and started the use of that Sanskrit language which was spoken by the common men in north -western part of India during Buddha's life -time and even during post-Buddha period. The existence of such type of Sanskrit is confirmed by several passages of the Mahābhāsya of Patañjali and by the statements of some of the modern Indian Philologists. They tried to render into Sanskrit those original teaching of Buddha, which existed mainly in Māgadhi or Pāli language. This hypothesis is based on the fact that this Buddhist Sanskrit has syntax, which is totally identical to that of Pāli. Besides it also shows close affinity to some of the phonological and morphological features of several middle Indic dialects. New dimensions may be added to the linguistic study of the Indo -Aryan languages if this problem is solved satisfactorily.

It is also suggested that Sanskrit was not a popular medium of composing religious literature in the Sramana tradition during the early period of its development. In the early inscription of Emperor Aśoka and others we never see any evidence of the use of Sanskrit. However the Buddhists and the Jainas, both adopted Sanskrit as a powerful medium for their compositions. Probably they did so in order to meet the challenges from their counterparts in Brahmanical tradition. In the early stages the Sanskrit adopted by the Buddhist contained the elements of their original texts, which were in different middle Indic dialects. Thus this language may also be considered as an outcome of the attempts for the most artificial sanskritization of the original Buddhist texts composed in different middle Indian dialects.

C. brief survey of the Buddhist literature composed in pure and mixed / hybrid Sanskrit:

The Buddhist Sanskrit literature is not exclusively Mahāyānic; many important Hinayāna texts are also composed in pure and mixed Sanskrit. We may divide this literature under following heads:

i. Sanskrit Āgamas or canon.

ii. The Mahāvastu

iii. The Lalita-vistara

iv. Literary compositions of poet Aśvaghoṣa, Kumāralatā, Matracetā, Āryasura and Buddhghoṣa.

v. Avadāna literature.

vi. Mahāyāna-Sūtra or Vaipulya-Sūtras. vii. The Philosophical texts of:

1. Vaibhāsika School.
2. Sautrāntika School.
3. Yogācāra
4. Mādhyamika
5. Buddhist logic

viii. Mahatmyas (texts glorifying different aspects of religion); Stotras (devotional hymns dedicated to the Buddha and other gods off Mahāyāna pantheon; Dharanis (protecting magical formulas and tantras).

It is impossible to analyse each and every section of this vast literature. Here is a brief survey of some of the most important texts: