Part 1 - The concept of Paramita (in Theravada and Mahayana)—Introduction

The Bodhisattva career begins with the production of the bodhicitta, the Thought of Enlightenment, in its literal meaning. This belief is common to both Theravada and Mahayana, and it is in the latter that the concept is greatly developed. The concept, though not referred to as bodhicitta, is found in Theravada as in the case of the story of Sumedha, the previous birth of Gotama Buddha under the dispensation of the Buddha Dipankara. In such instances the term used in Pali literature is the abhinihara 202 or determination. In Pali literature, the forms Parami and Paramita occur in the Suttanipata, the Jataka, the Nettippakarana and other treatises. The 203 202 Jataka I, pp.14-15: Buddhabhavaya abhinaharam katva/ buddhattaya abhiniharam katva || 203 Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature p.165: Suttanipata , 1018; 'mantesu paramim bruhi (or paramim),' p.195: Jataka I, 45-7 ff; I, 73: Nettipakarana , 87, 'catutthe jhane paramitaya.'

104 practice of Parami or Paramita is considered a must for all Bodhisattvas and it forms almost the essence of the Bodhisattva career. This is why the Paramitas are called Buddhakaraka-Dhamma in the Buddhavamsa. The Cariyapitaka calls them 'bodhipacana' and also in the Attthakathas of both Buddhavamsa and Cariyapitaka, the Paramitas are described as 'bodhipacana' (maturing enlightenment) only. The opinions of scholars differ with regard to the derivation of the term. A group of scholars favours the view that it is derived from Scholars such as Monier Williams, Har Dayal,2 too, 'param+ita.' seem to endorse this derivation. 206 207 208 Some others such as I.B. Horner and Ven. H. Saddhatissa 209 also agree for this derivation. The others are of the view that the term is derived from 'Parama' meaning 'the best, 204 Buddhavamsa II, v, 116. 205 206 207 208 Buddhavamsa Atthakatha: Madhuratthavilasini 104; Criyapitaka; Cariyapitaka Atthakatha (Paramatthadipani) 277. Sanskrit English Dictionary p.619. Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature p. 165. See MQ. vol. I, p.28, fn.5 and p. 166, fn 5. 209 BSTB and the Dasabodhisattuppattikatha, p.96, fn. 12. 210 Bodhisattvabhumi 138 a, 4;3:- Paramena kalena samudagatah paramaya svabhavavisuddhya visuddhah paramam ca phalam anuprayacchanti/ The Paramitas are so

105 highest, perfect,' etc. 211 The The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary considers the two terms paramita and parami as COterminus. Commenting on the word parami, the The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary says that it is an abstract from 'parama' and suggests a comparison with Buddhist Sanskrit phrase 'mantranan paramim gata.' Another problematic issue is related to the number of Paramitas. It is seen that in the Pali tradition the number is generally considered to be six, seven, or ten. The Sanskrit sources fix it at six, but later the number increased into ten. The ten Paramitas are not referred to in early canonical texts. The earliest reference to term Paramita in the Pali tradition is in the Buddhavamsa. This undoubtedly is a late text, though it is considered canonical as it belongs to the Khuddakanikaya. The ten Paramitas referred to in the Buddhavamsa are as follows:- ①Dana (charity, generosity or simply giving), ②Sila (virtue or morality), ③ Nekkhamma (renunciation), ④Panna (wisdom), ⑤ Viriya (energy or effort), ⑥Khanti (patience or forbearance), ①Sacca (truthfulness), ⑧Adhitthana (resolution, determination), ⑨Metta (friendliness or loving kindness), ①Upekkha (equanimity). called because they are acquired during a long period of time, supremely pure in their nature, transcend the virtues or qualities of the sravakas and the pratyekabuddhas, and lead to the highest result. 211 See The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary a.v. Parami

106 In Mahayana texts Paramitas are generally referred to as being six in number and these are: Dana, Sila, Ksanti, Virya, Dhyana and Prajna. Of these, five are common to both traditions but Dhyana does not occur in the Pali list of Paramitas. Nekkhamma, Sacca, Adhitthana, Metta and Upekkha are not mentioned in the usual enumerations of Paramita found in the Mahayana texts. 212 E.J. Thomas is of the opinion that the first six in the list are earlier; this, he seems to think, is justified because the list ends with Prajna Paramita which really is the culmination of the emancipatory process. Har Dayal too shares this view, and, further, he says that the original numer of six Paramitas was increased to ten as a consequence of the invention of the decimal system of computation, when development in the science of arithmetic took place; according to him in the 3 rd or 4 th century A.D. 213 It is shown by others (such as T. Endo 214) that both these contentions cannot be accepted. It is seen that Panna Paramita in the Pali list is enumerated as the 4 th and not as the 6 th. Hence, it cannot be considered as denoting the culmination of the emancipatory process. It is 212 E.J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought p.211. 213 Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature p. 167. 214 T. Endo, Buddha in Theravada Buddhism p.269.

107 also seen that the order of enumeration of the two lists is also different. Commentator Dhammapala, the author of the Cariyapitaka Atthakatha, argues in favour of the list of six Paramitas what he thinks are fundamental, and considers the others as redundant. This list of six Paramitas which he approves of is identical with the six Paramitas accepted by the Mahayana. Explaining the reduction of ten Paaramitas into six, he says that Nekkhamma Parami and Sacca Parami are constituents of Sila Parami. Similarly, Metta Parami is included in Jnana Parami and Upekkha Parami in both Jhana and Panna Paramis. Further, he says that Adhitthana Parami is included in all Paramis. Har Dayal, dealing with this question, says that it is possible that the doctrine of Paramita gradually grew from the three fundamental training Sila, Samadhi and Panna. Further he also says that the increase in number in Mahayana may be due to the rivalry between Theravada and Mahayana. note that Vasubandhu in his It is interesting to Mahayanasutralamkara commentary explains that the six Paramitas are related to the threefold training (tri-siksas), namely, adhisila, adhicitta and adhiprajna. According to this explanation the first three Paramitas are connected to adhisila; fifth to adhicitta and sixth to adhiprajna. The fourth namely, viriya is considered as being common to all three siksas. This should be compared with the categorization of Paramita by the wellknown Pali commentator Rev. Dhammapala, referred to above. According

108 to him the six basic Paramitas are Dana, Sila, Khanti, Viriya, Jhana and Panna. These are same as the six Paramitas accepted in Mahayana as being fundamental. As pointed out before, he considers that others are redundant as they are already included in the fundamental Paramitas. What is obvious is that Dhammapala has been quite aware of the Mahayana concept prevalent at the time. There is a further development of the concept of Paramitas in the Pali commentarial tradition. This is the categorization of Paramis into Parami, Upaparami and Paramatthaparami, each containing ten divisions and thus making a total of thirty. This gradation of Paramis into three levels has been justified on numerous grounds, citing tradition. 215 Whether there is any significance in the order in which the Paramis are enumerated is another important issue. Though not explicitly stated, late Pali canonical sources like the Buddhavamsa and Cariyapitaka seem to accept that they are enumerated in a hierarchical order. This is specially clear from the Mahayana tradition too, wherein each Paramita is assigned to a particular 'bhumi,' and these bhumis are arranged in a gradually increasing order of precedence. Perhaps, this Mahayana belief is at the root of the Pali commentarial tradition which quite explicitly states that the sequence, in which the Paramis are enumerated is 215 T. Endo, Buddha in Theravada Buddhism p.273.

109 indicative of their importance. Thus, Dhammapala himself commenting on the order says that the each Perfection is strengthened by the one that follows and thus, Dana supports Sila, and Sila supports Khanti and so on. 216 Perhaps this explanation is also connected to the popular classification of the steps of the spiritual path to Dana, Sila and Bhavana. There is no doubt that the practice of Paramitas is an important But does this mean that the feature in the career of the Bodhisattva. Paramitas are to be practised only by the Bodhisattvas? The question is not of much relevance to the Mahayana practice, for it considers that Budhhahood is open to all and therefore all are potential Bodhisattvas. Thus, The content of Paramitas shows that they are mainly related to morals, and some to psychological and intellectual development. though they are not called Paramis, the practice of Dana, Sila, Bhavana, Nekkhamma, Khanti, Pariccaga, Viriya, Metta, etc. are all very much emphasized in Buddhism in general. The Noble Eight-fold Path is, in other words, a programme for cultivation of moral, mental and intellectual qualities. All Buddhists to some degree, practise Paramitas and their consequence depends on the intensity with which they are practised. However, they are not referred to as 'Perfections' in the religious sense which we understand them when they are practised by non-Bodhisattvas. 216 Criyapitaka; Cariyapitaka Atthakatha (Paramatthadipani) p.278.

110 The The Pali tradition of categorizing the Paramis, Upaparamita and Paramatthaparami seems also to support the idea that these three levels. indicate three levels of intensity of Paramis, and that they indicate the intensity with which the Parami are practised by ordinary Savakas (pakati savakas), Mahasavakas (great disciples) and Bodhisattvas. The Paramis are practised at the Paramattha intensity only by the Bodhisattvas. term parami indicates the Perfection at the ordinary level, Upaparami, though literary means minor-Perfection, connotes a higher level than parami; and Paramatthaparami connotes the highest level of intensity at which parami can by fulfilled. Mahayana belief also subscribes to such a Scholars have pointed out that Lankavatara-Sutra states that the six Perfections are practised at different levels of intensity. They are practised at the ordinary level by ordinary followers of the teaching for happiness here and hereafter. It is of extra-ordinary intensity when practised by Hinayanist with the aim of realizing Nirvana, and they are of highest intensity when fulfilled by Mahayanist Bodhisattvas for the well-being of all. conclusion. Both Theravada and Mahayana speak of the time-period that should be devoted to the cultivation of the Paramitas. It is clearly seen that the period varies according to the intensity in which they are cultivated, and also according to the aspiration made. Another important factor in the concept of Paramitas is the relation between the specific resolution made and the fulfilment of the

111 Paramita. Though characteristics denoted by Paramis Paramis could be cultivated by all, they take the form of the cultivation of fulfilment of Paramita only when they are cultivated after making a specific resolution declaring the purpose or the aim for which they are practised. Thus, it is very clear that both in Theravada and Mahayana there is a belief which holds that there is a causal relation between the resolution and the commencement of the fulfilment of the Paramita. And it is also a fact that both in Theravada and Mahayana, the Parami of a Bodhisattva is of a higher level than the Parami cultivated by others, and as pointed out before the Lankavatara Sutra bears evidence to this. Buddhakaraka-dhamma. It is clearly seen from the foregoing account that Paramitas formed a very essential aspect of the practice leading to spiritual progress in both Theravada and Mahayana. They are emphatically described as It is really the Mahayana that specifically focuses attention on this aspect and makes it an essential as well as an integral part of the scheme of salvation to be realized through Bodhisattva career, culmination with consecration of the Bodhisattva as a Buddha. The Mahayana religious writers had taken much trouble to fuse the Paramita concept with that of the bhumi concept. Consequently, they To expand accepted an expanded version of the Paramitas from six to ten to fit into their accepted concept of ten bhumis leading to Buddhahood. the scheme of Paramita they added four new ones namely, Upayakausalya, Pranidhana, Bala and Jnana, which certainly are of supplementary nature

112 to the fundamental six Paramitas. This expansion of the scheme of Paramitas itself shows the importance placed on it in their emancipatory programme. From the way in which the Paramitas have been treated in this scheme of salvation it appears that the Mahayanists consider them to have some hierarchical importance in the way they are enumerated. Thus, they attempt to fit in the Paramitas and the bhumis in their ascending order. The Madhyamakavatara of Candrakirti gives the close connection between 217 Paramitas and the bhumis. Thus, it is explained that:- (1) The joyful stage (Pramudita) is the domain of charity or dana which is not perfect until it is fertilized by knowledge of the void. (2) The immaculate stage (vimala) is the domain of morality (sila). The Bodhisattva accumulates the ten good paths of pure action which is not the case in the preceding period. This purity consists especially of the absence of the conception of the ego. (3) In the Shining stage (Prabhakari) the Bodhisattva 'shines' by patience (Ksanti). Anger is the only evil that can, in a moment, destroy the merits accumulated during centuries. The Bodhisattva acquires the four trances (dhyana), the four 'immeasurable' (apramanya), and the five supernatural powers (abhijna). He diminishes and reduces to nothing desire, hatred, and confusion, and triumphs over them in the world. 217 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics p.748.

113 (4) The Radiant stage (Arcismati) is the domain of energy (virya) which helps towards the Perfection of good works, intellectual and moral, and especially towards application to the thirty-seven virtues connected with the Bodhi (bodhipaksikadharma), and also the complete surrender of the idea of 'mine." (5) In the Invincible stage (Sudurjaya) meditation or ecstasy (samadhi, dhyana) predominates. The Bodhisattva, safe from demons, meditates on and understands the four noble truths (anulomiki ksanti), or what comes to the same thing, relative truth and real truth (samvrti and paramarthasatya). (6) The 'Face to face' stage (Abhimukhi), the domain in which prajna reigns, is thus named because the Bodhisattva, understanding 'dependent origination,' is now face to face the principles of the Perfect Buddhas. The prajna predominates in him. He obtains the nirodhasamapatti (destruction-trance), which was not possible before on account of the nonpredominance of prajna and the preeminence of charity, etc. a (7) In the Far-going stage (Durangama), together with the perpetual 'ecstasy of annihilation,' there prevails the Perfection of skill in the means (upayakausalaparamita). These means lead towards (a) the acquisition of the Bodhi; compassion, ①K knowledge of the elements of existence, CD:D:DCE_ desire for Bodhi, non-surrender of existence, CD Dimmaculate sojourn in existence, ① burning energy; and (b) the 'ripening' of creatures; @ making their insignificant roots of merit bear great fruit, ① implanting in them a

114 great roots of merit, removing all obstacles to the law of the Buddha, C removing all obstacles to the law of the Buddha, enabling them to enter the Great Vehicle, Ⓒ causing them to ripen in the Great Vehicle, and ① leading them to deliverance. (8) In the Immovable stage (Acala) predominates the virtue of resolves (Pranidhanaparamita). The Bodhisattva is no longer in the world of becoming (samsara), but, by virtue of his sovereignty over things (pranidhanavasita), he appears in the universe in various aspects. His resolves are perfectly pure, that is to say, the resolves which he has formed during the course of his active career all bear their fruit, as if he were really acting. (9) In the Sadhumati stage the Bodhisattva is called 'good' (sadhu), due to the Development of the balaparamita, i.e., of the ten powers of a Buddha, takes place. (10) In the 'Cloud of the Law' (Dharmamegha) there is jnanaparamita, excellence and predominance of the knowledge of a Buddha. The different Perfections may be considered in detail in the context of the bhumis.