Chapter 22 - Country of Kiu-sa-ta-na (Khotan)

This country is about 4000 li in circuit; the greater part is nothing but sand and gravel (a sandy waste); the arable portion of the land is very contracted. What land there is, is suitable for regular cultivation, and produces abundance of fruits. The manufactures are carpets, haircloth of a fine quality, and fine-woven silken fabrics. Moreover, it produces white and green jade. The climate is soft and agreeable, but there are tornados which bring with them clouds of flying gravel (dust). They have a knowledge of politeness and justice. The men are naturally quiet and respectful. They love to study literature and the arts, in which they make considerable advance. The people live in easy circumstances, and are contented with their lot.

This country is renowned for its music;^[1] the men love the song and the dance. Few of them wear garments of skin (felt) and wool; most wear taffetas and white linen. Their external behaviour is full of urbanity; their customs are properly regulated. Their written characters and their mode of forming their sentences resemble the Indian model; the forms of the letters differ somewhat; the differences, however, are slight. The spoken language also differs from that of other countries. They greatly esteem the law of Buddha. There are about a hundred saṅghārāmas with some 5000 followers, who all study the doctrine of the Great Vehicle.

The king is extremely courageous and warlike; he greatly venerates the law of Buddha. He says that he is of the race of Pi-sha-men (Vaiśravaṇa) Deva. In old times this country was waste and desert, and without inhabitants. The Deva Pi-sha-men came to fix his dwelling here. The eldest son of Aśoka-rāja, when dwelling in Takṣaśilā having had his eyes put out, the King Aśoka was very angry, and sent deputies to order the chief of the tribes dwelling there to be transported to the north of the snowy mountains, and to establish themselves in the midst of a desert valley. Accordingly, the men so banished, having arrived at this western frontier (of the kingdom), put at their head a chief of their tribe and made him king. It was just at this time a son of the king of the eastern region (China) having been expelled from his country, was dwelling in this eastern region. The people who dwelt here urged him also to accept the position of king. Years and months having elapsed, and their laws not yet being settled,^[2] because each party used to meet by chance in the hunting-ground, they came to mutual recriminations, and, having questioned each other as to their family and so on, they resolved to resort to armed force. There was then one present who used remonstrances and said, "Why do you urge each other thus today? It is no good fighting on the hunting-ground; better return and train your soldiers and then return and fight." Then each returned to his own kingdom and practised their cavalry and encouraged their warriors for the fray. At length, being arrayed one against the other, with drums and trumpets, at dawn of the day, the western army (lord) was defeated. They pursued him to the north and beheaded him. The eastern king, profiting by his victory, reunited the broken parts of his kingdom (consolidated his power), changed his capital to the middle land,^[3] and fortified it with walls; but, because he had no (surveyed) territory, he was filled with fear lest he should be unable to complete his scheme, and so he proclaimed far and near, "Who knows how to survey a dominion?" At this time there was a heretic covered with cinders who carried on his shoulder a great calabash full of water, and, advancing to the king, said, "I understand a method" (a territory), and so he began to walk round with the water of his calabash running out, and thus completed an immense circle. After this he fled quickly and disappeared.

Following the traces of the water, the king laid the foundation of his capital city; and having retained its distinction, it is here the actual king reigns. The city, having no heights near it, cannot be easily taken by assault. From ancient times until now no one has been able to conquer it, The king having changed his capital to this spot, and built towns and settled the country, and accuired much religious merit, now had arrived at extreme old age and had no successor to the throne. Fearing lest his house should become extinct, he repaired to the temple of Vaiśravaṇa, and prayed him to grant his desire. Forthwith the head of the image (idol) opened at the top, and there came forth a young child. Taking it, he returned to his palace. The whole country addressed congratulations to him, but as the child would not drink milk, he feared he would not live. He then returned to the temple and again asked (the god) for means to nourish him. The earth in front of the divinity then suddenly opened and offered an appearance like a pap. The divine child drank from it eagerly. Having reached supreme power in due course, he shed glory on his ancestors by his wisdom and courage, and extended far and wide the influence of his laws. Forthwith he raised to the god (Vaiśravaṇa) a temple in honour of his ancestors. From that time till now the succession of kings has been in regular order, and the power has been lineally transmitted. And for this reason also the present temple of the Deva is richly adorned with rare gems and worship is punctually offered in it. From the first king having been nourished from milk coming from the earth the country was called by its name (pap of the earth - Kustana).

About 10 li south of the capital is a large saṅghārāma, built by a former king of the country in honour of Vairochana^[4] (Pi-lu-che-na) Arhat.

In old days, when the law of Buddha had not yet extended to this country, that Arhat came from the country of Kaśmīr to this place. He sat down in the middle of a wood and gave himself to meditation. At this time certain persons beheld him, and, astonished at his appearance and dress, they came and told the king. The king forthwith went to see him for himself. Beholding his appearance, he asked him, saying, "What man are you, dwelling alone in this dark forest?" The Arhat replied, "I am a disciple of Tathāgata; I am dwelling here to practise meditation. Your majesty ought to establish religious merit by extolling the doctrine of Buddha, building a convent, and providing a body of priests." The king said, "What virtue has Tathāgata, what spiritual power, that you should be hiding here as a bird practising his doctrine (or rules)?" He replied, "Tathāgata is full of love and compassion for all that lives; he has come to guide living things throughout the three worlds; he reveals himself by birth or he hides himself; he comes and goes. Those who follow his law avoid the necessity of birth and death; all those ignorant of his doctrine are still kept in the net of worldly desire." The king said, "Truly what you say is a matter of high importance." Then, after deliberation, he said with a loud voice, "Let the great saint appear for my sake and show himself; having seen his appearance, then I will build a monastery, and believe in him, and advance his cause." The Arhat replied, "Let the king build the convent, then, on account of his accomplished merit, he may gain his desire."

The temple having been finished, there was a great assembly of priests from far and near; but as yet there was no ghaṇṭā to call together the congregation; on which the king said, "The convent is finished, but where is the appearance of Buddha?" The Arhat said, "Let the king exercise true faith and the spiritual appearance will not be far off!" Suddenly in mid-air appeared a figure of Buddha descending from heaven, and gave to the king a ghaṇṭā (kien-t'i), on which his faith was confirmed, and he spread abroad the doctrine of Buddha.

To the south-west of the royal city about 20 li or so is Mount Gośṛṅga (K'iu-shi-ling-kia); there are two peaks to this mountain, and around these peaks there are on each side a connected line of hills. In one of the valleys there has been built a saṅghārāma; in this is placed a figure of Buddha, which from time to time emits rays of glory; in this place Tathāgata formerly delivered a concise digest of the law for the benefit of the Devas. He prophesied also that in this place there would be founded a kingdom, and that in it the principles of the bequeathed law would be extended and the Great Vehicle be largely practised.

In the caverns of Mount Gośṛṅga is a great rock-dwelling where there is an Arhat plunged in the ecstasy called "destroying the mind;" he awaits the coming of Maitreya Buddha. During several centuries constant homage has been paid to him. During the last few years the mountain tops have fallen and obstructed the way (to the cavern). The king of the country wished to remove the fallen rocks by means of his soldiers, but they were attacked by swarms of black bees, who poisoned the men, and so to this day the gate of the cavern is blocked up.

To the south-west of the chief city about 10 li there is a monastery called Ti-kia-p'o-fo-na (Dīrghabhāvana?), in which is a standing figure of Buddha of K'iu-chi.^[5] Originally this figure came from K'iu-chi (Kuche), and stayed here.

In old time there was a minister who was banished from this country to K'iu-chi; whilst there he paid worship only to this image, and afterwards, when he returned to his own country, his mind still was moved with reverence towards it. After midnight the figure suddenly came of itself to the place, on which the man left his home and built this convent.

Going west from the capital 300 li or so, we come to the town of Po-kia-i (Bhagai?); in this town is a sitting figure of Buddha about seven feet high, and marked with all the distinguishing signs of beauty. Its appearance is imposing and dignified. On its head is a precious gem-ornament, which ever spreads abroad a brilliant light. The general tradition is to this effect:—this statue formerly belonged to the country of Kaśmīr; by the influence of prayer (being requested), it removed itself here. In old days there was an Arhat who had a disciple, a Sacute;rāmaṇera, on the point of death. He desired to have a cake of sown rice (ts'hu mai); the Arhat by his divine sight seeing there was rice of this sort in Kustana, transported himself thither by his miraculous power to procure some. The śrāmaṇera having eaten it, prayed that he might be reborn in this country, and in consequence of his previous destiny he was born there as a king's son. When he had succeeded to the throne, he subdued all the neighbouring territory, and passing the snowy mountains, he attacked Kaśmīr. The king of Kaśmīr assembled his troops with a view to resist the invaders. On this the Arhat warned the king against the use of force, and said, "I am able to restrain him."

Then going to meet the king of Kustana (K'iu-sa-tan-na), began to recite choice selections of scripture (the law).

The king at first, having no faith, determined to go on with his military preparations; On this the Arhat, taking the robes which were worn by the king in his former condition as a śrāmaṇera, showed them to him. Having seen them, the king reached to the knowledge of his previous lives, and he went to the king of Kaśmīr and made profession of his joy and attachment. He then dispersed his troops and returned. The image which he had honoured when a Sha-mi he now respectfully took in front of the army, and came to this kingdom at his request. But having arrived at this spot, he could not get further, and so built this saṅghārāma; and calling the priests together, he gave his jewelled headdress for the image, and this is the one now belonging to the figure, the gift of the former king.

To the west of the capital city 150 or 160 li, in the midst of the straight road across a great sandy desert, there are a succession of small hills, formed by the burrowing of rats. I heard the following as the common story:—"In this desert there are rats as big as hedgehogs, their hair of a gold and silver colour. There is a head rat to the company. Every day he comes out of his hole and walks about; when he has finished the other rats follow him. In old days a general of the Hiung-nu came to ravage the border of this country with several tens of myriads of followers. When he had arrived thus far at the rat-mounds, he encamped his soldiers. Then the king of Kustana, who commanded only some few myriads of men, feared that his force was not sufficient to take the offensive. He knew of the wonderful character of these desert rats, and that he had not yet made any religious offering to them; but now he was at a loss where to look for succour. His ministers, too, were all in alarm, and could think of no expedient. At last he determined to offer a religious offering to the rats and request their aid, if by these means his army might be strengthened a little. That night the king of Kustana in a dream^[6] saw a great rat, who said to him, "I wish respectfully to assist you. Tomorrow morning put your troops in movement; attack the enemy, and you will conquer."

The king of Kustana, recognising the miraculous character of this intervention, forthwith arrayed his cavalry and ordered his captains to set out before dawn, and at their head, after a rapid march, he fell unexpectedly on the enemy. The Hiung-nu, hearing their approach, were overcome by fear. They hastened to harness their horses and equip their chariots, but they found that the leather of their armour, and their horses' gear, and their bow strings, and all the fastenings of their clothes, had been gnawed by the rats. And now their enemies had arrived, and they were taken in disorder. Thereupon their chief was killed and the principal soldiers made prisoners. The Hiung-nu were terrified on perceiving a divine interposition on behalf of their enemies. The king of Kustana, in gratitude to the rats, built a temple and offered sacrifices; and ever since they have continued to receive homage and reverence, and they have offered to them rare and precious things. Hence, from the highest to the lowest of the people, they pay these rats constant reverence and seek to propitiate them by sacrifices. On passing the mounds they descend from their chariots and pay their respects as they pass on, praying for success as they worship. Others offer clothes, and bows, and arrows; others scents, and flowers, and costly meats. Most of those who practise these religious rites obtain their wishes; but if they neglect them, then misfortune is sure to occur.

To the west of the royal city 5 or 6 li^[7] is a convent called Sa-mo-joh (Samajña). In the middle of it is a stūpa about 100 feet high, which exhibits many miraculous indications (signs). Formerly there was an Arhat, who, coming from a distance, took up his abode in this forest, and by his spiritual power shed abroad a miraculous light. Then the king at night-time, being in a tower of his palace,^[8] saw at a distance, in the middle of the wood, brilliant light shining. Asking a number of persons in succession what their opinion was, they all said, "There is a śramaṇa who has come from far, and is sitting alone in this wood. By the exercise of his supernatural power he spreads abroad this light." The king then ordered his chariot to be equipped, and went in person to the spot. Having seen the illustrious sage, his heart was filled with reverence, and after having offered him every respect, he invited him to come to the palace. The śramaṇa said, "Living things have their place, and the mind has its place. For me the sombre woods and the desert marshes have attraction. The storeyed halls of a palace and its extensive courts are not suitable for my tastes."

The king hearing this felt redoubled reverence for him, and paid him increased respect. He constructed for him a saṅghārāma and raised a stūpa. The śramaṇa, having been invited to do so, took up his abode there.

The king having procured some hundred particles of relics, was filled with joy and thought with himself, "These relics have come late; if they had come before, I could have placed them under this stūpa, and then what a miracle of merit it would have been." Going then to the saṅghārāma, he asked the śramaṇa. The Arhat said, "Let not the king be distressed. In order to place them in their proper place you ought to prepare a gold, silver, copper, iron, and stone receptacle, and place them one in the other, in order to contain the relics. The king then gave orders to workmen to do this, and it was finished in a day. Then carrying the relics on an ornamented car (or, stand), they brought them to the saṅghārāma. At this time the king, at the head of a hundred officers, left the palace (to witness the procession of the relics), whilst the beholders amounted to several myriads. Then the Arhat with his right hand raised the stūpa, and holding it in his palms, he addressed the king and said, "You can now conceal the relics underneath." Accordingly he dug a place for the chest, and all being done, the Arhat lowered the stūpa without hurt or inconvenience.

The beholders, exulting at the miracle, placed their faith in Buddha, and felt increased reverence for his law. Then the king, addressing his ministers, said, "I have heard it said that the power of Buddha is difficult to calculate, and his spiritual abilities difficult to measure. At one time he divided his body into ten million parts; at other times he appeared among Devas and men, holding the world in the palm of his hand without disturbing anyone, explaining the law and its character in ordinary words, so that men and others, according to their kind, understood it, exhibiting the nature of the law in one uniform way, drawing all men (things) to a knowledge of it according to their minds. Thus his spiritual power was peculiarly his own; his wisdom was beyond the power of words to describe. His spirit has passed away, but his teaching remains. Those who are nourished by the sweetness of his doctrine and partake of (drink) his instruction; who follow his directions and aim at his spiritual enlightenment, how great their happiness, how deep their insight. You hundred officers ought to honour and respect Buddha; the mysteries of his law will then become clear to you."

To the south-east of the royal city 5 or 6 li is a convent called Lu-shi,^[9] which was founded by a queen of a former ruler of the country. In old time this country knew nothing about mulberry trees or silkworms. Hearing that the eastern country had them, they sent an embassy to seek for them. At this time the prince of the eastern kingdom kept the secret and would not give the possession of it to any. He kept guard over his territory and would not permit either the seeds of the mulberry or the silkworms' eggs to be carried off.

The king of Kustana sent off to seek a marriage union with a princess of the eastern kingdom (China), in token of his allegiance and submission. The king being well-affected to the neighbouring states acceded to his wish. Then the king of Kustana dispatched a messenger to escort the royal princess and gave the following direction: "Speak thus to the eastern princess,—Our country has neither silk or silken stuffs. You had better bring with you some mulberry seeds and silkworms, then you can make robes for yourself."

The princess, hearing these words, secretly procured the seed of the mulberry and silkworms' eggs and concealed them in her head-dress. Having arrived at the barrier, the guard searched everywhere, but he did not dare to remove the princess's head-dress. Arriving then in the kingdom of Kustana, they stopped on the site afterwards occupied by the Lu-shi saṅghārāma; thence they conducted her in great pomp to the royal palace. Here then they left the silkworms and mulberry seeds.

In the spring-time they set the seeds, and when the time for the silkworms had come they gathered leaves for their food; but from their first arrival it was necessary to feed them on different kinds of leaves, but afterwards the mulberry trees began to flourish. Then the queen wrote on a stone the following decree, "It is not permitted to kill the silkworm! After the butterfly has gone, then the silk may be twined off (the cocoon). Whoever offends against this rule may he be deprived of divine protection." Then she founded this saṅghārāma on the spot where the first silkworms were bred; and there are about here many old mulberry tree trunks which they say are the remains of the old trees first planted. From old time till now this kingdom has possessed silkworms, which nobody is allowed to kill, with a view to take away the silk stealthily. Those who do so are not allowed to rear the worms for a succession of years.

To the south-east of the capital about 200 li or so is a great river^[10] flowing north-west. The people take advantage of it to irrigate their lands. After a time this stream ceased to flow. The king, greatly astonished at the strange event, ordered his carriage to be equipped and went to an Arhat and asked him, "The waters of the great river, which have been so beneficial to man, have suddenly ceased. Is not my rule a just one? Are not my benefits (virtues) widely distributed through the world? If it be not so, what is my fault, or why is this calamity permitted?"

The Arhat said, "Your majesty governs his kingdom well, and the influence of your rule is for the well-being and peace of your people. The arrest in the flow of the river is on account of the dragon dwelling therein. You should offer sacrifices and address your prayers to him; you will then recover your former benefits (from the river)."

Then the king returned and offered sacrifice to the river dragon. Suddenly a woman emerged from the stream, and advancing said to him, "My lord is just dead, and there is no one to issue orders; and this is the reason why the current of the stream is arrested and the husband-men have lost their usual profits. If your majesty will choose from your kingdom a minister of state of noble family and give him to me as a husband, then he may order the stream to flow as before."

The king said, "I will attend with respect to your request and meet your wishes." The Nāga (woman) was rejoiced (to have obtained the promise of) a great minister of the country (as a husband).

The king having returned, addressed his dependents thus, "A great minister is the stronghold of the state. The pursuit of agriculture is the secret of men's life. Without a strong support, then, there is ruin to the state; without food there is death to the people. In the presence of such calamities what is to be done?"

A great minister, leaving his seat, prostrated himself and said," For a long time I have led a useless life, and held an important post without profit to others. Although I have desired to benefit my country, no occasion has offered. Now, then, I pray you choose me, and I will do my best to meet your wishes. In view of the good of the entire people what is the life of one minister? A minister is the support of the country; the people the substance. I beg your majesty not to hesitate. I only ask that, for the purpose of securing merit, I may found a convent."

The king having consented, the thing was done forthwith, and his request complied with. On this the minister asked to be allowed to enter at once the dragon-palace. Then all the chief men of the kingdom made a feast, with music and rejoicing, whilst the minister, clad in white garments and riding a white horse, took leave of the king and respectfully parted with the people of the country. So, pressing on his horse, he entered the river; advancing in the stream, he sank not, till at length, when in the middle of it, he whipped the stream with his lash, and forthwith the water opened in the midst and he disappeared. A short time afterwards the white horse came up and floated on the water, carrying on his back a great sandalwood drum, in which was a letter, the contents of which were briefly these: "Your majesty has not made the least error in selecting me for this office in connection with the spirit (Nāga). May you enjoy much happiness and your kingdom be prosperous! Your minister sends you this drum to suspend at the south-east of the city; if an enemy approaches, it will sound first of all."

The river began then to flow, and down to the present time has caused continued advantage to the people. Many years and months have elapsed since then, and the place where the dragon-drum was hung has long since disappeared, but the ruined convent by the side of the drum-lake still remains, but it has no priests and is deserted.

Three hundred li or so to the east of the royal city is a great desert marsh, upwards of several thousands acres in extent, without any verdure whatever. Its surface is a reddish-black. The old people explain the matter thus: This is the place where an army was defeated. In old days an army of the eastern country numbering a hundred myriads of men invaded the western kingdom. The king of Kustana, on his side, equipped a body of cavalry to the number of ten myriads, and advanced to the east to offer the enemy battle. Coming to this spot, an engagement took place. The troops of the west being defeated, they were cut to pieces and their king was taken prisoner and all their officers killed without leaving one to escape. The ground was dyed with blood, and the traces of it still remain (in the colour of the earth).

After going east 30 li or so from the field of battle we come to the town of Pīa (Pi-mo). Here there is a figure of Buddha in a standing position made of sandalwood. The figure is about twenty feet high. It works many miracles and reflects constantly a bright light. Those who have any disease, according to the part affected, cover the corresponding place on the statue with gold-leaf, and forthwith they are healed. People who address prayers to it with a sincere heart mostly obtain their wishes. This is what the natives say: This image in old days when Buddha was alive was made by Udāyana (U-to-yen-na), king of Kauśāmbī (Kiao-shang-mi). When Buddha left the world, it mounted of its own accord into the air and came to the north of this kingdom, to the town of Ho-lo-lo-kia.^[11] The men of this city were rich and prosperous, and deeply attached to heretical teaching, with no respect for any other form of religion. From the time the image came there it showed its divine character, but no one paid it respect.

Afterwards there was an Arhat who bowed down and saluted the image; the people of the country were alarmed at his strange appearance and dress, and they hastened to tell the king. The king issued a decree that the stranger should be covered over with sand and earth. At this time the Arhat's body being covered with sand, he sought in vain for food as nourishment.^[12] There was a man whose heart was indignant at such treatment; he had himself always respected the image and honoured it with worship, and now seeing the Arhat in this condition, he secretly gave him food. The Arhat being on the point of departure, addressed this man and said, "Seven days hence there will be a rain of sand and earth which will fill this city full, and there will in a brief space be none left alive. You ought to take measures for escape in knowledge of this. They have covered me with earth, and this is the consequence to them." Having said this he departed, disappearing in a moment.

The man, entering the city, told the tidings to his relatives, but they did nothing but mock at him. The second day a great wind suddenly arose, which carried before it all the dirty soil, whilst there fell various precious substances.^[13] Then the men continued to revile the man who had told them (about the sand and earth).

But this man, knowing in his heart what must certainly happen, excavated for himself an underground passage leading outside the city, and there lay concealed. On the seventh day, in the evening, just after the division of the night, it rained sand and earth, and filled the city.^[14] This man escaped through his tunnel and went to the east, and, arriving in this country, he took his abode in Pīma. Scarcely had the man arrived when the statue also appeared there. He forthwith paid it worship in this place and dared not go farther (change his abode). According to the old account it is said, "When the law of śākya is extinct then this image will enter the dragon-palace."

The town of Ho-lo-lo-kia is now a great sand mound. The kings of the neighbouring countries and persons in power from distant spots have many times wished to excavate the mound and take away the precious things buried there; but as soon as they have arrived at the borders of the place, a furious wind has sprung up, dark clouds have gathered together from the four quarters of heaven, and they have become lost to find their way.

To the east of the valley of Pīma^[15] we enter a sandy desert, and after going 200 li or so, we come to the town of Ni-jang. This city is about 3 or 4 li in circuit; it stands in a great marsh; the soil of the marsh is warm and soft, so that it is difficult to walk on it. It is covered with rushes and tangled herbage, and there are no roads or pathways; there is only the path that leads to the city, through which one can pass with difficulty, so that every one coming and going must pass by this town. The king of Kustana makes this the guard of his eastern frontier.

Going east from this, we enter a great drifting sand desert. These sands extend like a drifting flood for a great distance, piled up or scattered according to the wind. There is no trace left behind by travellers, and oftentimes the way is lost, and so they wander hither and thither quite bewildered, without any guide or direction. So travellers pile up the bones of animals as beacons. There is neither water nor herbage to be found, and hot winds frequently blow. When these winds rise, then both men and beasts become confused and forgetful, and then they remain perfectly disabled (sick). At times sad and plaintive notes are heard and piteous cries, so that between the sights and sounds of this desert men get confused and know not whither they go. Hence there are so many who perish in the journey. But it is all the work of demons and evil spirits.

Going on 400 li or so, we arrive at the old kingdom of Tu-ho-lo (Tukhāra).^[16] This country has long been deserted and wild. All the towns are ruined and uninhabited.

From this going east 600 li or so, we come to the ancient kingdom of Che-mo-t'o-na,^[17] which is the same as the country called Ni-mo. The city walls still stand loftily, but the inhabitants are dispersed and scattered.

From this going north-east a thousand li or so, we come to the old country of Navapa (Na-fo-po), which is the same as Leu-lan.^[18] We need not speak of the mountains and valleys and soil of this neighbouring country. The habits of the people are wild and unpolished, their manners not uniform; their preferences and dislikes are not always the same.

There are some things difficult to verify to the utmost, and it is not always easy to recollect all that has occurred. But the traveller has written a brief summary of all he witnessed or heard. All were desirous to be instructed, and wherever he went his virtuous conduct drew the admiration of those who beheld it. And why not? in the case of one who had gone alone and afoot from Ku, and had completed such a mission by stages of myriads of li!^[19]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Compare the remark of Fa-hian (chap. iii.), "They love religious music." For the products and general abundance of the district round Khotan consult Marco Polo, Yule's notes, vol. i. pp. 174, 175.

[2]:

I.e., the mutual relations of the two. The passage respecting the "western frontier" refers to the frontier of the "western kingdom."

[3]:

That is, according to Julien (note, p. 225), "the land between the eastern and western states"

[4]:

In Chinese Pin-chiu, "he who shines in every place," or, "the everywhere glorious."

[5]:

This is restored by Julien to Kuche (text in loco); a Chinese note tells us it was in the "icy mountains," and is now called Tu-sha. (?Tush kurghan).

[6]:

For these desert rats, which are probably the same as the "golden ants" of Herodotos and Nearkhos, see Mrs. Spiers' Ancient India; p. 216. For "the dream" and the destruction of the Assyrian army in Egypt by mice, see Herodotus, Bk. ii. chap. 141.

[7]:

Julien has "fifty or sixty li."

[8]:

Or, a double tower; a belvedere.

[9]:

Lu-shi means "stag-pierced;" but it is probably a phonetic form in this passage, and is the name of the daughter of the prince of the eastern kingdom.

[10]:

Probably the Karakash river. Its sandy and dry bed is still marked with a dotted line on Shaw's map (High Tartary and Yarkand). Or it may be Khotan-dāria.

[11]:

Rāgha or Raghan, or perhaps Ourgha.

[12]:

It would seem that his body was buried up to his neck.

[13]:

Stas. Julien prefers substituting "sha-tu" in the text for "tsah-pao". In that case it would be "sand and earth;" but, if this be so, why did the people still find fault with the prophet?

[14]:

For an account of sand-buried cities, and particularly of Kaṭak, see Bellew, Kashmir and Kashgar, pp. 370, 371. Also for Pīma, probably near Keria, see Yule, Marco Polo, vol. ii., Appendix M.; and also vol. i. chap. xxxvii. and note 1. It is probably the Han-mo of Sung Yun.

[15]:

Pīma was probably the Pein of Marco Polo. See Yule, ut supra.

[16]:

This was probably the extreme limit of the old kingdom of Tu-ho-lo towards the east. When the Yue-chi spread eastwards they dispossessed the old Turanian population.

[17]:

This is the Tso-moh of Sung-yun. It must have been near Sorghak of Prejevalsky's map. For some interesting notes on this place see Kingsmill, China Review, vol. viii. No. 3, p. 163.

[18]:

Also called Shen-shen; see China Review, loc. cit. Kingsmill makes Navapa equal to Navapura, i.e., Neapolis.

[19]:

M. Julien renders this passage: "How could he be compared simply to such men as have gone on a mission with a single car, and who have traversed by post a space of a thousand li?" But if the symbol "ku" be for "Ku-sse", i.e., "the ancient land of the Uigurs" (see vol. i. p. 17, n. 51), then I think the translation I have given is the right one. Respecting this land of Kau-chang, we are told it was called Ming-fo-chau in the Han period, and Ku-sse-ti (the land of Ku-sse) during the Tang period (vid. the map called Yu-ti-tsun-t'si).