1.1. Materials for Ornaments: Metals (Introduction)

Knowledge of ancient Indians about metals was amazing. From the incidental references made by Sanskrit writers, it is evident that mining and metallurgy were well developed in ancient times. Almost all metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, bronze, brass, bell metal, tin, lead and steel were in use. For making ornaments, gold and silver were widely used. Ornaments made out of iron, lead and copper also are rarely mentioned.

The Vedas and the Brāhmaṇas frequently mention the above metals. A hymn in Śuklayajurveda^[1], gives reference to some metals.

In Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, lead is identified thus -

[...].^[2]

In Vedic age, the word Ayas used to denote all sorts of metals. But in the later Vedic age, adjectives were prefixed to this word to denote different metals. Thus copper was called by the name Lohāyas or Lohitāyas and iron by the name Kṛṣṇāyas or Śyāmāyas.

In Ṛgveda, we do not have any specific mention regarding the makers of ornaments. But some incidental references point to the fact that there might have been some garland makers, who were very dedicated to their work. For, in one context a hymn^[3] describes such makers troubled with evil dreams, which indicate their anxiety.

Upaniṣads also refer to metals. In Chāndogyopaniṣad, there is a hymn thus—

[...].^[4]

The term goldsmith is referred to in Manusmṛti. According to Manusmṛti, those who have stolen precious things are reborn as goldsmiths. The punishments for goldsmiths were of different kinds in accordance with the intensity of the fault. Thus one may have capital punishment or amercement. The first one was meant for dishonesty, while the latter for improper work^[5].

From Vālmīki-rāmāyaṇa^[6] and Mahābhārata, we get some obscure indications of mining and metal refining prevalent in that period. Vālmīki-rāmāyaṇa alludes to the mountains from where minerals were obtained. The description of the town Laṅkā and its people, gives ample references to the use of gold and silver. It also proves the developed craftsmanship of goldsmiths in the period.

A verse in Udyogaparva of Mahābhārata indirectly reveals metal refining thus—

[...].^[7]

Metal purification by means of chemicals was known to the people of Purāṇic period. In Agnipurāṇa^[8], we have references to cleansing of copper by acids, while for iron and bell metal, the cleansing agent is alkali.

In Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra^[9] there is a separate chapter devoted to this subject. There we have references to mine controller, superintend of metals, their duties etc. Basically mining industry and metallurgy were under the control of a chief controller. In addition to this, each department coming under mining and metallurgy was headed by some other controllers, who were known by the name Adhyakṣa. Thus there were Adhyakṣas or heads for the departments of mines, metals and jewellery. Labourers like goldsmith, silversmith and blacksmith were under the supervision of the chief superintendent of jewellery. Their works include setting, stringing, plating, enamelling and making different objects, solid as well as hollow. The various forms of cheating by goldsmiths also are pointed out. The goldsmiths were called by the name Suvarṇakāra, while black smiths were known as Karmakāra.

According to Bharata^[10], the ornaments worn by the actors should be of light weight. Otherwise it will cause them fatigue. Hence all the ornaments used in a stage performance were imitated ones. For making such ornaments, light metals as well as natural substances were used. Bharata^[11] gives a description of the procedure followed in a crown making, which was designed by a special artisan namely Makuṭakāra. The boiled flesh of wood apple was employed in its making. On its surface, mica sheets were pasted in order to make a real look of a crown.

Kālidāsa^[12] also attests to the working of mines in his works.

From Aśvaghoṣa^[13] we can infer that there was a society of gold cleaners who made gold dirt free by placing it in the hearth.

Dhātuvāda, Suvarṇaparīkṣā, Rūpyaratnaparīkṣā, Maṇirāgākarajñāna etc are some of the sixty-four arts enumerated by Vātsyāyana. Of these, the first one is minerology. Second and third are the examination of gold and jewels, while the last one is related to knowledge of jewels as well as mines^[14]. Śukranītisāra also considers the various procedures connected with metallurgy, such as alloying, separating, piercing and incinerating as arts^[15]. The notion of sixty-four arts is followed by Bāṇa and Daṇḍi^[16]. P.C Ray in his A History of Hindu Chemistry (AHHC)^[17] quotes some ancient chemical texts. These texts collected in the form of manuscripts are proof of the knowledge of ancient Indians in alchemy. They were skilled in the ‘Killing’ (Suvarṇamāraṇa) and purification of metals. They identified metals by means of colour of flames. They were also skilled in the testing of pure metals. Some of the metals popularly used in making of ornaments are described below.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

XVIII.13

[2]:

12.7, 1.17

[3]:

VII.47.15

[4]:

4.17

[5]:

12.61, 9, 286.292

[6]:

IV.10.7, 20.8, 33.17, 60.15, 61.125

[7]:

Udyogaparva, 39.81

[8]:

156.1

[9]:

Chandraguptamaurya, p.93

[10]:

Nāṭyaśāstra, XXI.45-49

[11]:

The Sanskrit Theatre and Stage Craft, p.385

[12]:

Raghuvaṃśa, III.18, 17.66, 18.22; Mālatīmādhava, V.18

[13]:

Saundarananda, XV.66

[14]:

Society and Culture in the Time of Daṇḍin (SCTD), p.395

[15]:

IC

[16]:

SCTD, p.395

[17]:

AHHC