Introduction

The history of a country is not simply a report of the geographical and political matters of that country, but includes the life and culture of the people of that particular region in a particular age. Archeological objects obtained either as a whole or as parts and books are helpful study materials here. Even though archeological objects like sculptures, edicts and coins are more authentic sources for the study of material culture, literary or scientific texts of those periods are also necessary for it. But references in books cannot always be substantiated by archeological evidences. Hence all such references can’t be considered as giving a true picture of life in those times.

As stated earlier, when we study the life of people of a particular period, naturally their dress and drapery also come under its purview.

Cosmetics, costumes and ornaments are not merely decorative objects. They reflect the social and economic state of the people. Moreover, they are manifestations of the sense of beauty, artistic sense, external and internal influences in this matter and the desire for the cultural progress.

Apart from the social and economic status, the cosmetics, dress and ornaments mainly depend on the following factors:

(1) The climate of a country, (2) Its industrial products and available natural resources, (3) The mental state of the person, (4) Certain beliefs in supernatural powers, (5) As indicators of certain ideas and concepts, e.g. token of love, symbol of sovereignty.

Cosmetics, costumes and ornaments of ancient India as reflected in Sanskrit literature are the subject matter of study of this thesis. Apart from an introduction and a conclusion, the thesis has three chapters. They are:

1. Cosmetics

This chapter is divided into ten subsections, which discuss materials for cosmetics, different forms of cosmetics, tips for enhancing beauty, art of decoration, articles of make-up, make-up for stage performance, cosmetics according to different regions, cosmetics for worship, prohibition of cosmetics and their trade.

2. Costumes

Materials for garments, types of garments, dress making, dressing of women, clothes as gift, some beliefs associated with dressing, trade and commerce are the seven subsections of this chapter.

3. Ornaments

This chapter consists of five sections. They describe in detail materials of ornaments, different types of ornaments, ornaments for different occasions, beliefs associated with ornaments, ornaments of animals, caskets of ornaments, trade and commerce etc.

This study is based on some selected texts–both literary and scientific, starting from Vedic period. These include Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Samhitas, Upaniṣads, Gṛhyasūtras, Śrautasūtras, Dharmasūtras, Smṛtis, Purāṇas, Mahākāvyas, Khaṇḍakāvyas, dramas, epics, grammatic texts, lexicons and some alchemical and Āyurvadic texts.

The topic has been mentioned as passing references in many of the above said sources. But encyclopaedic type of works like Bṛhatsaṃhitā, Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, Agnipurāṇa, Mānasollāsa and Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa have given importance to this subject. Kāmasūtra and Śukranītisāra consider this subject as one of the sixty-four arts in which prostitutes had to be experts.

Studies have been done on this subject based on archeological evidence. A comprehensive study based on literary works, especially those in Sanskrit is perhaps being done for the first time.

P.K Gode has claimed that two manuscripts discovered by him in 1944 are the only Sanskrit works dealing exclusively with cosmetics. These works (with a commentary in Marathi) are Gandhasāra of Gaṅgādhara and Gandhavāda by an anonymous author. P.K Gode in his book Studies in Indian Cultural History (SIICH) states that he has published several articles based on these two texts. Some of the recent books in this subject are Āyurvedic Technical Studies and Herbal Cosmetics of Ancient India of K.H Krishnamurthy and Herbal Cosmetics in Ancient India with a Treatise on Planta Cosmetica by Prof. P.V Bole. Of these K.H Krishnamurthy’s book is based only on Bṛhatsaṃhitā and Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra. No detailed study has been done based on Sanskrit texts by Prof. P.V Bole also.

Descriptions regarding the costumes and ornaments in ancient India are obtained from books like Ancient Indian Costume of Roshan Alkazi, Indian Costume, Coiffure and Ornament of Sachidanand Sahay, Dress and Ornaments in Ancient India by Dr. Induprabha Panday, Vaidik Kālin Bhārathiya Ābhushan of G.C Rai, Indian Jewellery, Ornaments and Decorative Designs of J. Brij Bhushan, The Costumes and Textiles of India by G.S Ghurye, Indian Costume of Mothi Chandra, Prācīna Bhāratīya Veṣabhūṣā by Dongerkery and Jewellery and Personal Adornment in India by S.Kamala. In all these though there are references to dress and drapery as reflected in Sanskrit literature, the priority is given to studies based on archeological evidences.

In addition to these, many studies dealing with the social and cultural life of the people of ancient India during different periods, mention this subject either as descriptions or as passing references. All these kind of books have been helpful in writing this thesis.

Each chapter of this thesis, mainly consists of four subsections–materials, types, preparation and trade. In addition to these, certain additional descriptions have also been added according to the context.

As mentioned earlier, books of Vedic period, Sūtra period, classical period etc. are the main sources for the study of this topic. Even though all these are helpful for a general study of this subject, certain aspects are studied based on certain specific texts of specific periods. For example, Smṛtis and Dharmaśāstra texts were useful in studying the differences in the costumes of different castes. Materials used for cosmetics, costumes and ornaments, manufacturing methods etc. are seen to be mentioned mostly in texts like Bṛhatsaṃhitā, Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, Agnipurāṇa, Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Gandhasāra Gandhavāda and in alchemical texts like Rasaratnākara Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava etc. Information regarding trade and commerce are based mainly on Bṛhatsaṃhitā and Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra. Lexicons and grammatical works were useful for analysing the meaning of many technical terms related to this subject. Costumes for stage performance are based on Nāṭyaśāstra. The changes in dress and drapery according to region, time, season and climate find mention in Mānasollāsa and in the works of Kālidāsa and Rājaśekhara.

In short, even though studies of the cosmetics, costumes and ornaments of ancient Indian people have taken place either as a whole or separately, a comprehensive study covering all the three subjects based on Sanskrit literature alone is perhaps being done for the first time.