Introduction (Kośa Literature–A Brief Survey)

[Note: Amarasiṃha, in the Nānārtha varga of his Amarakośa, arranges the words by their final endings; accordingly the word koṣa is arranged among the ‘ṣa’-antas. Kṣīrasvāmin too prefers the word koṣa. Hence the same ‘ṣa’-anta word ‘koṣa’ is followed throughout this thesis.]

The speciality of Sanskrit language is that it is full of paryāya śabdas (synonyms), where different words are used for the same source or object and nānārtha śabdas (homonyms), where the same word has different senses.

This is rightly observed by Patañjali in the Mahābhāṣya (under Sūtra I.3.1) stating that there are many words with the same sense and that one and the same word has different meanings–

bahavo hi śabdā ekārthā bhavanti | tadyathā -indraḥ śakraḥ puruhūtaḥ purandaraḥ | ekaśca śabdo bahvarthāḥ tadyathā -ākṣāḥ pādāḥ māṣāḥ iti |

The Indian writers were also aware of the fact that exact synonyms of words are a rarity since the so-called synonyms have shades of difference in their meanings. Again all schools of thought have accepted that the meaning in popular usage prevail over the etymological sense.

Pāṇini (I. 2. 53) states that the sense of words in popular usage must supercede the authority of the meaning dependent on derivation–

tadaśiṣyaṃ saṃjñāpramāṇatvāt |

Kātyāyana (Vārttika on Pāṇini I. 2. 71) and Patañjali (on Pāṇini I. 1. 21; I. 1. 65) have also endorsed this idea by stating thus–

loka vijñānāt siddham |

Different methods of learning the words and their denotations are enumerated by Mathurānātha in his commentary on the Tattvacintāmaṇi^[1] of Gaṅgeśopādhyā:

śaktigrahaṃ vyākaraṇopamānakośāptavākyād vyavahārataśca |
vākyasya śeṣād vivṛtervadanti sānnidhyataḥ siddhapadasya vṛddhāḥ ||

The eight methods enlisted by him above are:

1. Śaktigraha–Apprehension of the meaning;
2. Vyākaraṇa–Grammar;
3. Upamāna–Analogy;
4. Koṣa–Lexicon;
5. Āptavākya–The direct statement of a trustworthy person;
6. Vyavahāra–Usage;
7. Vākyaśeṣa–Rest of the passage in the context and
8. Vivṛti–Explanation.

Lexicography or Koṣa writings naturally precede the regular analysis of language as it largely helps in understanding the meaning of a word. It sometimes gives the metaphorical sense sanctioned by the usage, but the primarily significative power is not to be assumed in such cases.

Vedic Nighaṇṭu is the earliest Sanskrit lexicon, which is a collection of Vedic words. Its purpose is to assist in interpreting the Vedic texts. The Nirukta of Yāska is a commentary on the Vedic Nighaṇṭu giving the etymology of all Vedic words. This text is said to be earlier than Pāṇini, belonging to about 4th century Bhānuji Dīkṣita C^[2].

This paved the way for later lexicographical works and commentaries on them. The Vedic Nighaṇṭu gave both the nominal and verbal forms of the words relating to the Vedic texts alone, while the later lexicons or Koṣas are restricted to nominal forms of the words of classical literature.

Sanskrit lexicons are composed in verses to serve the purpose of memorising. Majority of lexicons deal with either synonyms or homonyms while some deal with both. The words are arranged subject-wise, with further sub-divisions based on grouping of words of one, two, three and more syllables or by the first or the final syllable.

The domain of Koṣa literature is also of varied types. Many well-known Koṣas as Amarakośa, Abhidhānaratnamālā and Vaijayantīkoṣa deal with synonyms and homonyms of profession, occupation, cosmology, flora, fauna, human body and so on. Koṣas like Dhanvantari Nighaṇṭu, Śivakoṣa of Śivadatta and Aṣṭāṅga Nighaṇṭu of Vāhaṭa or Vāgbhaṭa, have for their domain, synonyms of plants and herbs, vegetables and mineral substances and their medicinal properties. Approved recipes, diseases, diet, hygiene etc. are treated in Hṛdayadīpikā, Śataślokī, Kalpadrukoṣa, etc. Rājavyavahārakoṣa deals with technical terms of administration and related topics. Dvirūpakoṣa of Śrīharṣa deals with two forms of words slightly different from each other. Deśīnāmamālā of Hemacandra and the like give the Prākṛt words with Sanskrit equivalents. Anekārthakoṣa of Śāśvata, Ekākṣarakoṣa, Viśvaprakāśa and others deal exclusively with homonyms.

A brief survey^[3] of the history^[4] of lexicons and lexicographers dealing with synonyms and homonyms, is presented below, broadly divided under two divisions as pre-Amarakośa and post-Amarakośa works.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Bibliotheca Indica 98, p. 481

[2]:

Kalpadrukośa, Introduction by Rāmāvatāra Śarmā, p. vii

[3]:

This survey is the condensation of the history of such lexicons and lexico-graphers provided in his Introduction by Rāmāvatāra Śarmā to his edition of Kalpadrukośa of Keśava.

[4]:

The historical dating of the texts is not given serious consideration in the thesis as it is not the prime concern of the thesis.